What are pistachio nuts

Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), a member of the cashew (Anacardiaceae) family, is a small tree cultivated in Iran, Turkey, United States, Syria, Italy, Tunisia, and Greece ¹. Iran is one of the biggest producers and exporters of pistachio nuts ². Fruit of Pistacia vera (pistachio) is used all over the world. Pistachios are globally distributed and consumed as a healthy snack. Pistachios can also be added to many savory dishes such as pastas, marinades and crusts for meat entrees, salsas, and stir-fries as well as a topping for salads, yogurts, and dips. Moreover, different parts of pistachio plant (Pistacia vera L.), including flower, leaf, seed and resins derived from stem, have pharmacological properties like antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities ³. Records of the consumption of pistachio as a food date to 7000 BC ⁴. The tree produces pistachio seeds (nuts) that are widely consumed as food. Pistachio nuts are a rich source of phenolic compounds, known for their high antioxidant activity, and contained not only in the seeds but also in the skin ⁵. Unfortunately, pistachio nut is also responsible for triggering moderate to severe IgE-mediated reactions in allergic individuals ⁶. Currently, pistachio nut allergy has gained some special attention, mainly due to its intrinsic relation with cashew nut allergy.

Pistachio is a desert plant that is highly adaptable to abiotic stresses and considered as a tolerant species against drought and salt stresses and is highly tolerant of saline soil. Although pistachio is categorized as a salt-tolerant glycophyte species, its yield is dramatically constrained under the high salinity conditions ⁷. It has been reported to grow well when irrigated with water having 3,000–4,000 ppm of soluble salts. Pistachio trees are fairly hardy in the right conditions and can survive temperatures ranging between −10 °C (14 °F) in winter and 48 °C (118 °F) in summer. They need a sunny position and well-drained soil. Pistachio trees do poorly in conditions of high humidity and are susceptible to root rot in winter if they get too much water and the soil is not sufficiently free-draining. Long, hot summers are required for proper ripening of the fruit. Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) often is confused with other species in the genus Pistacia that are also known as pistachio. These other species can be distinguished by their geographic distributions (in the wild) and their seeds which are much smaller and have a soft shell.

To prevent fatty acids in pistachios from oxidation, store pistachios in an airtight container in the refrigerator at 40°F (4°C) for up to 1 year. At room temperature 68°F (20°C), they should be kept in a dry environment and will last several months.

Figure 1. Pistachio

Figure 2. Pistachio nuts

Pistachio nutrition

Pistachio nuts are a nutritionally dense food. In a 100 gram serving, pistachio nuts provide 560 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value or DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several dietary minerals (i.e, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium) and the B vitamins, thiamin and especially vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) at 131% DV. Pistachio nuts are a good source (10–19% DV) of calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A, vitamin B5, vitamin C, folate, vitamin E (especially γ-tocopherol), and vitamin K. Pistachios are also a good source of vegetable protein (about 21% of total weight), with an essential amino acid ratio higher than most other commonly consumed nuts (ie, almonds, walnuts, pecans, and hazelnuts), and they have a high percentage of branched chain amino acids ⁸. The amount of total carbohydrates is low to moderate (about 29% by weight), but they are richer in fiber than other nuts with a 10% by weight of insoluble forms and 0.3% of soluble forms (Table 3).

Pistachio nut is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins ⁹ and carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene, and γ-tocopherol) content. Saturated fatty acids include palmitic acid (10% of total) and stearic acid (2%). Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated fatty acid (51% of total fat) and linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is 31% of total fat. Relative to other tree nuts (see Table 3 below), pistachios have a lower amount of fat and calories but higher amounts of potassium, vitamin K, γ-tocopherol, and certain phytochemicals such as carotenoids and phytosterols. Dry roasted pistachios have a lower fat content (45.82 g/100 g), which is composed mainly of saturated fatty acid (5.6 g), polyunsaturated fatty acid (13.3 g), and monounsaturated fatty acid (24.5 g).

Moreover, pistachios are also a rich source of lutein and zeaxanthin (xanthophyll carotenoids) and phenolic compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins, and their antioxidant capacity is considerable. Pistachios are the nuts that have the highest content of phytosterols, including stigmasterol, campesterol, and β-sitosterol ¹⁰. This complete and diverse set of micronutrients and macronutrients means that pistachio nuts are potentially one of the more health-promoting foods. Their beneficial properties, based on pistachios’ specific macronutrient, micronutrient and bioactive molecules will remain unchanged even after cooked. Moreover, other properties such as their contribution to the glycemic index and glycemic load of a particular meal would be improved by their inclusion.

Table 1. Pistachio nuts (raw) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	4.37
Energy	kcal	560
Energy	kJ	2342
Protein	g	20.16
Total lipid (fat)	g	45.32
Ash	g	2.99
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	27.17
Fiber, total dietary	g	10.6
Sugars, total	g	7.66
Sucrose	g	6.87
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.32
Fructose	g	0.24
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0.17
Starch	g	1.67
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	105
Iron, Fe	mg	3.92
Magnesium, Mg	mg	121
Phosphorus, P	mg	490
Potassium, K	mg	1025
Sodium, Na	mg	1
Zinc, Zn	mg	2.2
Copper, Cu	mg	1.3
Manganese, Mn	mg	1.2
Selenium, Se	µg	7
Fluoride, F	µg	3.4
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	5.6
Thiamin	mg	0.87
Riboflavin	mg	0.16
Niacin	mg	1.3
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.52
Vitamin B-6	mg	1.7
Folate, total	µg	51
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	51
Folate, DFE	µg	51
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	26
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	305
Carotene, alpha	µg	10
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	516
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	2903
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	2.86
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	20.41
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0.8
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	5.907
04:00:00	g	0
6:0	g	0.012
8:0	g	0
10:0	g	0.004
12:0	g	0
13:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.019
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	5.265
17:0	g	0.009
18:0	g	0.478
20:0	g	0.046
22:0	g	0.04
24:0	g	0
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	23.257
14:1	g	0
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.495
18:1 undifferentiated	g	22.674
20:1	g	0.089
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
24:1 c	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	14.38
18:2 undifferentiated	g	14.091
18:2 n-6 c,c	g	14.091
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.289
18:04:00	g	0
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Phytosterols	mg	214
Stigmasterol	mg	5
Campesterol	mg	10
Beta-sitosterol	mg	198
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.251
Threonine	g	0.684
Isoleucine	g	0.917
Leucine	g	1.604
Lysine	g	1.138
Methionine	g	0.36
Cystine	g	0.292
Phenylalanine	g	1.092
Tyrosine	g	0.509
Valine	g	1.249
Arginine	g	2.134
Histidine	g	0.512
Alanine	g	0.973
Aspartic acid	g	1.884
Glutamic acid	g	4.3
Glycine	g	1.009
Proline	g	0.938
Serine	g	1.283
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0
Anthocyanidins
Cyanidin	mg	7.3
Petunidin	mg	0
Delphinidin	mg	0
Malvidin	mg	0
Pelargonidin	mg	0
Peonidin	mg	0
Flavan-3-ols
(+)-Catechin	mg	3.6
(-)-Epigallocatechin	mg	2
(-)-Epicatechin	mg	0.8
(-)-Epicatechin 3-gallate	mg	0
(-)-Epigallocatechin 3-gallate	mg	0.4
(+)-Gallocatechin	mg	0
Flavanones
Hesperetin	mg	0
Naringenin	mg	0
Flavones
Apigenin	mg	0
Luteolin	mg	0
Flavonols
Myricetin	mg	0
Quercetin	mg	1.5
Isoflavones
Daidzein	mg	1.87
Genistein	mg	1.75
Glycitein	mg	0
Total isoflavones	mg	3.63
Formononetin	mg	0
Coumestrol	mg	0.01
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers	mg	13.3
Proanthocyanidin trimers	mg	10.5
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers	mg	42.2
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers	mg	37.9
Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers)	mg	122.5

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹¹]

Table 2. Pistachio nuts (dry roasted without added salt) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	1.85
Energy	kcal	572
Energy	kJ	2392
Protein	g	21.05
Total lipid (fat)	g	45.82
Ash	g	3
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	28.28
Fiber, total dietary	g	10.3
Sugars, tota	g	7.74
Sucrose	g	7.09
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.25
Fructose	g	0.22
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0.13
Galactose	g	0.05
Starch	g	1.38
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	107
Iron, Fe	mg	4.03
Magnesium, Mg	mg	109
Phosphorus, P	mg	469
Potassium, K	mg	1007
Sodium, Na	mg	6
Zinc, Zn	mg	2.34
Copper, Cu	mg	1.293
Manganese, Mn	mg	1.243
Selenium, Se	µg	10
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	3
Thiamin	mg	0.695
Riboflavin	mg	0.234
Niacin	mg	1.373
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.513
Vitamin B-6	mg	1.122
Folate, total	µg	51
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	51
Folate, DFE	µg	51
Choline, total	mg	71.4
Betaine	mg	0.8
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	13
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	159
Carotene, alpha	µg	0
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	266
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	1160
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	2.17
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0.13
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	23.42
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0.55
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	13.2
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	5.645
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
8:0	g	0
10:0	g	0
12:0	g	0
13:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.012
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	4.994
17:0	g	0.011
18:0	g	0.558
20:0	g	0.033
22:0	g	0.026
24:0	g	0.011
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	24.534
14:1	g	0.005
15:1	g	0.009
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.464
17:1	g	0.02
18:1 undifferentiated	g	23.926
18:1 t	g	0
20:1	g	0.106
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0.005
24:1 c	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	13.346
18:2 undifferentiated	g	13.125
18:2 n-6 c,c	g	13.125
18:2 t not further defined	g	0
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.212
18:3 n-3 c,c,c (ALA)	g	0.212
18:3 n-6 c,c,c	g	0
18:04:00	g	0
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0.005
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0.005
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans-monoenoic	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Stigmasterol	mg	2
Campesterol	mg	10
Beta-sitosterol	mg	210
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.262
Threonine	g	0.714
Isoleucine	g	0.957
Leucine	g	1.675
Lysine	g	1.189
Methionine	g	0.375
Cystine	g	0.305
Phenylalanine	g	1.14
Tyrosine	g	0.531
Valine	g	1.305
Arginine	g	2.228
Histidine	g	0.535
Alanine	g	1.016
Aspartic acid	g	1.968
Glutamic acid	g	4.49
Glycine	g	1.054
Proline	g	0.98
Serine	g	1.34
Hydroxyproline	g	0.096
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹¹]

Table 3. Pistachio nuts nutritional value compared with other nuts

[Source: ¹²]

Health benefits of pistachio nuts

Pistachio nuts are considered a rich source of many important bio-functional compounds that are useful for the human diet and known for their various pharmacological properties such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, and anti-nociceptive activities ¹³. Recently, scientists analyzed and described the nutraceutical, antioxidant, and cytoprotective activity of crude phenols and anthocyanins-rich extracts derived from ripe pistachio hulls, a by-product of the pistachio industry ¹⁴. As their nutritional profile suggests, pistachios can play an important role in improving such metabolic conditions as overweight, type 2 diabetes mellitus or metabolic syndrome.

Nut consumption is associated with significant reductions in cardiovascular disease risk and all-cause mortality ¹⁵. In the Nurses’ Health Study ¹⁵, women who consumed >2 servings of nuts per week had an 18% reduction in cardiac death compared with women who did not eat nuts regularly. In short-term, randomized trials, almonds, walnuts and pistachios ¹⁶ significantly reduced low-density lipoprotein (LDL) “bad” cholesterol and total cholesterol, when compared with a typical Western diet or diets low in saturated fat ¹⁷. Scientists have shown previously that including 1 or 2 servings per day of pistachios in a healthy diet reduced LDL “bad” cholesterol by 9% to 12% ¹⁸. The effects of pistachios on the ratio of LDL “bad” cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein “good” (HDL) cholesterol were dose dependent, with larger improvements in LDL “bad” cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein “good” cholesterol ¹⁸ and greater reductions in oxidized LDL “bad” cholesterol ¹⁹ when participants consumed 2 servings per day. Relative to other nuts, pistachios are a rich source of antioxidants, including lutein, β-carotene, and γ-tocopherol in addition to containing selenium, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins ²⁰. As would be expected, pistachios have a relatively high in vitro antioxidant capacity ²¹. Oxidized LDL “bad” cholesterol ²² and lipid peroxidation products are found in elevated concentrations in atherosclerotic plaques ²³ and are thought to play an important role in the development and progression of atherosclerosis ²². Thus, strategies that reduce in body oxidative stress are thought to confer cardioprotective effects.

Lipid Profile

Previous dietary interventions with pistachios conducted in humans have shown improvements in lipoprotein profiles ²⁴ and one reported a beneficial effect on serum antioxidant status (measured using a malondialdehyde assay) in 44 males and females who consumed a diet that provided 20% of their energy as pistachios for 3 weeks ²⁴. Another study ²⁵ demonstrated beneficial effects of pistachios on multiple biomarkers of oxidative state. The study found significant decreases in serum oxidized-LDL “bad” cholesterol in participants following the pistachio-enriched diets relative to the control diet ²⁵. The decrease in oxidized-LDL “bad” cholesterol was accompanied by a significant increase in serum concentrations of antioxidants (relative to the control diet), including γ-tocopherol, lutein and β-carotene, thus indicating a beneficial effect of pistachios on concentrations of serum antioxidants ²⁵. The results of this 2016 systematic review ²⁶ provide solid evidence that intake of pistachio nuts may exerts favorable effects on the traditional blood profile, provided that their consumption does not increase the habitual or recommended daily caloric intake.

In summary, evidence suggests that pistachios may improve well-established and novel blood lipid markers of atherosclerosis and therefore help decrease cardiovascular risk. In order to fully establish the potential health effects of pistachio consumption on the prevention of cardiovascular events clinical trials needed to be carried out in the future.

Figure 3. Possible health benefits of pistachios consumption

Note: CVD = cardiovascular disease

[Source ²⁷]

Lowers Blood Pressure

Several prospective studies have shown an inverse association between nut consumption and blood pressure or hypertension ¹². However, the results of clinical trials are more controversial. The intake of 10% of energy in the form of pistachios for 1 month significantly reduced systolic blood pressure and made no difference in diastolic blood pressure compared with the control nut-free group ²⁸. Similarly, a recent study conducted in type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects showed a reduction in systolic blood pressure after 4 weeks consuming a diet with 20% energy from pistachios ²⁹. Moreover, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of more than 20 randomized controlled trials found that although diastolic blood pressure was reduced by the intake of mixed nuts, pistachios alone seemed to have the strongest effect on reducing both systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure ³⁰.

Walnut, hazelnut, and pistachio consumption also improves the circulating concentrations of endothelial markers and endothelial function ³⁰.

In conclusion, chronic pistachio consumption has proved to have a beneficial effect on blood pressure and endothelial function, which may help to improve cardiovascular risk ¹².

Glucose and Insulin Metabolism

Pistachios have more total carbohydrates (29% w/w) than do other nuts, but their consumption has no deleterious effect in subjects with abnormal glucose and insulin metabolism.

Data from several epidemiological studies and clinical trials suggest that the frequency of nut consumption is inversely related to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. This may be because of the fact that nuts are relatively high in fiber, healthy fats, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory content ³¹. In addition, among all nuts, pistachios have a low glycemic index (GI), suggesting that they may reduce postprandial glycemia and insulinemia and therefore contribute to reducing the type 2 diabetes mellitus risk ³². Pistachios consumed alone had a minimal effect on postprandial glycemia, but the addition of pistachios to a meal containing foods rich in carbohydrates with a high glycemic index (eg, pasta, parboiled rice, or instant mashed potatoes) ³³ or bread ³² reduces postprandial glycemia in a dose-dependent response.

Several clinical studies have investigated the effect of pistachio consumption on glucose concentrations. They observed a significant decrease in fasting plasma glucose ³⁴, in glucose but not in insulin blood levels ³⁵, and in both fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels ³⁶ after pistachio intake. Only 1 cross-over study conducted on metabolic syndrome subjects free of type 2 diabetes has shown no significant changes in fasting plasma glucose or in insulin concentrations during the pistachio-enriched diet period compared with the intervention period without pistachios ³⁷.

Pistachio consumption has also proved to have beneficial effects on diabetes control. In a randomized controlled study ³⁸, the intake of mixed nuts (including pistachios) for 3 months in type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects, as a replacement for carbohydrate-containing foods, demonstrated for the first time a significant decrease in hemoglobin A1c in a full-nut dose compared with a half-nut and control-muffin doses. Results were similar in a recent crossover trial with 48 diabetic participants after 3 months of pistachio consumption ³⁹. Pistachio intake has also recently been found to significantly enhance the glucose and insulin metabolism of prediabetic patients ³⁶ and improve insulin resistance status and other cardiovascular risk factors.

Despite the positive results observed for glucose metabolism, more studies need to be made to evaluate the long-term effects of pistachio consumption on insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus prevention and control.

Satiety Regulation and Weight Management

Because nuts are energy-dense foods with a high fat content, one of the main concerns regarding the regular consumption of nuts in a worldwide pandemic of overweight and obesity is that nuts are believed to be fattening. To date, however, epidemiological studies have failed to find any association between nut or pistachio consumption and either weight gain or an increased risk of obesity ⁴⁰. Likewise, controlled feeding trials confirm that adding nuts to usual diets does not induce weight gain ⁴¹. Several studies that have evaluated pistachios’ effect on body weight as a secondary outcome have reiterated their null effect on body weight and body mass index ⁴². Only one recent study conducted in type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects has found a significant reduction of body mass index after pistachio consumption ³⁵.

These findings may be explained by the energy density of pistachios; their content in fiber, protein, and unsaturated fatty acids; and their crunchy physical structure, which may induce satiety and therefore reduce subsequent food intake ⁴³. It has been speculated that various signaling systems (ie, mechanical, nutrient, and sensory) are activated by mastication, which may modify appetitive sensations ⁴⁴. To date, only 2 studies have evaluated the satiating properties of pistachio nuts in humans. The conclusions are that the consumption of in-shell pistachios led to lower calorie intake than the consumption of kernels ⁴⁵ and that the visual cue of empty pistachio shells helped the participants to consume fewer calories during the day ⁴⁶.

In addition, the monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that nuts contain have a greater thermic effect that will induce higher thermogenic effect ⁴⁷ than saturated fatty acids, which can lead to less fat accumulation by an increase in sympathetic activity in brown adipose tissue ⁴⁸. Finally, after nut intake, fat is malabsorbed to a slight extent largely because the fat in the walls of nut cells is not completely digested in the gut ⁴⁹, suggesting that energy from nuts is poorly absorbed. Therefore, the metabolized energy contained in these types of nut is less than predicted by the Atwater general factors, which is the system used for the calculation of the available energy of foods developed from experimental studies in the early years of the 20th century ⁵⁰.

Traditional medicine uses

In traditional Iranian medicine, different parts of pistachio have been used for a long time as useful remedies for different diseases, for example, the fruit kernel of pistachio as a cardiac, stomach, hepatic, and brain tonic ⁵¹.

Table 4. Traditional medical uses of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.)

Pistacia vera	Iran	Nut shell	Tonic, sedative, and antidiarrhea	52
		Fruit	Food	53
	Jordan	Oil	Facial skin cleanser	54
	Turkey	Resin	Asthma, stomach ache, and hemorrhoids	55

[Source ⁵¹]

New trends in pistachio research

Pistachio in the prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus and other Metabolic Diseases

Research has focused widely on the beneficial effects of pistachios on such conditions as type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome ⁵⁶. However, very little information is currently available on the potential role pistachio nuts play in preventing the development of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Pistachios in cancer or neurodegenerative diseases

Vitamin E and other antioxidants provide some protection against certain forms of cancer. Therefore, foods such as pistachios, with a high content of γ-tocopherol (a form of vitamin E) and other antioxidants may reduce the risk of different types of cancer ⁵⁷. Moreover, the skin of nuts contains considerable amounts of resveratrol ⁵⁸, which has been widely studied for its role in cancer, but new research is now changing this focus to other diseases such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease ⁵⁹.

Pistachio and gut microbiota

Recent findings have shown that both pistachios and almonds have a potential prebiotic effect in healthy populations, and that the effect of the former is greater ⁶⁰. Thereby, pistachios’ microbiota modulation increased the number of butyrate-producing bacteria, identified as potentially beneficial, whereas bifidobacteria was not affected. However, new investigations should be performed to contrast and further explore these findings. Regulation of the phyla composition or the production of regulatory and protective molecules (eg, butyrate) by our gut microbiota could be mediators of the well-established beneficial properties of pistachios and other nuts.

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