Sesame oil

by Health Jade Team on August 11, 2018

What is sesame oil

Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds (Sesamum indicum). Sesame oil is used in salad and cooking oils, shortening and some margarines. Sesame oil is a key flavor ingredient in some Chinese dishes. Sesame oil keeps well and resists rancidity, due to the presence of a natural antioxidant, sesamol. Commercially, sesame oil comes in two types. One type of sesame oil is a pale yellow liquid and has a pleasant grain-like odor and somewhat nutty taste ¹. Sesame oil is high in polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs), ranking fourth behind safflower, soybean and corn oil. Sesame oil is excellent for use as frying oil, in cosmetics and in food preparations. The other type of sesame oil is amber-colored and aromatic, made from pressed and toasted sesame seeds ¹. This popular ingredient in ethnic cooking is not used as a cooking oil, however, because the flavor is too intense and it burns quite easily. Instead, amber-colored sesame oil is normally added as a flavoring agent in the final stages of cooking.

Oil is extracted from sesame seeds by mechanical pressing. The sesame seed may be cold pressed to give an aromatic salad oil or hot pressed to give a lower grade product. The sesame oil yield is from 50 percent to 57 percent, depending on growing conditions and seed variety.

The outstanding characteristic of sesame oil is its long shelf life due to its natural antioxidant, sesamol. This quality makes sesame oil applicable for use in the manufacture of margarine in many parts of the world where there is inadequate refrigeration. Sesame oil is also used in paints, soaps, cosmetics, perfumes, bath oils, insecticides and pharmaceuticals (vehicle for drug delivery). Poppy seed, cotton seed and rape oils are frequently added to sesame oil.

Sesame oil is rich in both MUFA (monounsaturated fatty acid) and PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acid). Many clinical and animal studies have identified that sesame oil contains lignans ² and is able to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation ³. Recently, scientists revealed a close relationship of inflammation with oxidative stress ⁴, as well as the effects of sesame oil feeding on inflammation and atherosclerosis in vivo ⁵.

Sesame oil allergy

As with numerous seed and nut foods, sesame oil may produce an allergic reaction, although the incidence of this effect is rare at approximately 0.1% of the population ⁶, ⁷. Reports of sesame allergy are growing in developed countries during the 21st century, with the allergic mechanism from sesame oil exposure expressed as contact dermatitis, possibly resulting from hypersensitivity to lignin-like compounds ⁸.

Symptoms of an allergic or allergic-type reaction

When someone comes in contact with a food allergen or added sulphites, the symptoms of an allergic or allergic-type reaction may develop quickly and rapidly progress from mild to severe. The most severe form of an allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. Symptoms can include breathing difficulties, a drop in blood pressure or shock, which may result in loss of consciousness and even death. A person experiencing an allergic reaction may have any combination of the following signs or symptoms:

Skin: hives, swelling (face, lips, tongue), itching, warmth, redness;
Respiratory: coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest pain or tightness, throat tightness, hoarse voice, nasal congestion or hay fever-like symptoms (runny, itchy nose and watery eyes, sneezing), trouble swallowing;
Gastrointestinal: nausea, pain or cramps, vomiting, diarrhea;
Cardiovascular: paler than normal skin colour/blue skin colour, weak pulse, dizziness or light headedness, loss of consciousness, shock;
Other: anxiety, sense of impending doom, headache, uterine cramps, metallic taste.

I have a sesame seed allergy. How can I avoid a sesame seed-related reaction?

Read food labels.

Other names for sesame seeds

In the past, some products have used other names for sesame on their labels. These names are not permitted without the word sesame also appearing on the label, based on the enhanced labelling requirements for food allergens, gluten sources and added sulphites. However, if you have a sesame allergy and see one of the following in the list of ingredients on a product you should not eat it.

Benne, benne seed and benniseed
Gingelly and gingelly oil
Seeds
Sesamol and sesamolina
Sesamum indicum
Sim sim
Til
Tahini (sesame paste)

Examples of foods and products that contain or often contain sesame seeds:

Bread (e.g., hamburger buns, multi-grains), bread crumbs and sticks, cereals, crackers, melba toast and muesli
Dips and spreads, e.g., hummus, chutney
Combination foods, e.g., flavoured rice, noodles, shish kebabs, stews and stir fries
Sesame oil, sesame salt (gomasio)
Tahina
Tempeh
Vegetarian burgers
Snack bars (protein bars, granola bars)

Avoid food and products that do not have an ingredient list and read labels every time you shop.

Other possible sources of sesame:

Some baked goods
Dressings, gravies, marinades, salads, sauces and soups
Herbs, seasonings, flavourings and spices
Vegetable Pâtés
Snack foods, e.g., crackers, sesame snap bars, granola bars
Vegetable oil (may contain sesame oil)

Non-food sources of sesame seeds:

Adhesive bandages
Cosmetics, hair care products, perfumes, soaps and sunscreens
Drugs
Fungicides and insecticides
Lubricants, ointments and topical oils
Pet food
Sesame meal, e.g., poultry and livestock feed

Note: These lists are not complete and may change. Food and food products purchased from other countries, through mail-order or the Internet, are not always produced using the same manufacturing and labelling standards as in the US.

Avoid all food and products that contain sesame and any product whose label carries a precautionary statement warning that the product might have sesame in it such as “may contain” sesame or similar wording. When provided by a manufacturer, precautionary statements are usually found after the list of ingredients or “Contains” statement if there is one.

If sesame is part of the product formulation, it must be declared in the list of ingredients or in a separate “contains” statement immediately following the list of ingredients.

Avoid any products that do not have an ingredient list.
Read labels every time you shop. Manufacturers may occasionally change their recipes or use different ingredients for varieties of the same product.

What do I do if I am not sure whether a product contains sesame seeds?

If you have a sesame seed allergy, do not eat, drink or use the product. Obtain ingredient information from the manufacturer.

Does product size affect the likelihood of an allergic reaction?

Product size does not affect the likelihood of a reaction; however, the same brand of product may be safe to consume for one product size but not another. This is because product formulation may vary between different product sizes of the same product or be produced in a different facility. Always read the ingredient lists carefully.

Is sesame oil healthy?

Yes, sesame oil is healthy and sesame oil is goof for you, because sesame oil oil has 39.7% content of monounsaturated fats (MUFAs) and 41.7% polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) (see Table 1 below). Monounsaturated fats can have a beneficial effect on your heart when eaten in moderation and when used to replace saturated fat and trans fat in your diet. The cholesterol-lowering effect of sesame oil could be attributed to the content of monounsaturated fats (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) in sesame oil and sesame seeds and that part of the effect is due to the replacement of mixtures of saturated fats in the diet by monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats, which are the prevalent fatty acids in sesame oil and sesame seeds. The American Heart Association recommends that for good health, the majority of the fats that you eat should be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated ⁹, ¹⁰. Therefore, you should eat foods containing monounsaturated fats and/or polyunsaturated fats instead of foods that contain saturated fats and/or trans fats.

Replacing bad fats (saturated and trans) with healthier fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) is better for your heart.

One way you can do this is by choosing healthier nontropical vegetable oils for cooking and preparing food.

Use these oils instead of solid fats (including butter, shortening, lard and hard stick margarine) and tropical oils (including palm and coconut oil), which can have a lot of saturated fat.

Cooking and salad oils that contain more monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and less saturated fat:

Canola oil
Corn oil
Olive oil
Peanut oil
Safflower oil
Soybean oil
Sunflower oil

Blends or combinations of these oils, often sold under the name “vegetable oil,” and cooking sprays made from these oils are also good choices. Some specialty oils, like avocado, grapeseed, rice bran and sesame, can be healthy choices but may cost a bit more or be harder to find. Also to make sure you’re getting the healthier oil, always read the ingredients of the oil for added antioxidants like TBHQ (Tert-butylhydroquinone).

In general, choose oils with less than 4 grams of saturated fat per tablespoon, and no partially hydrogenated oils or trans fats.

You may find that some oils have distinctive flavors, so try different types to discover which ones you like. Also, some oils are better for certain types of cooking than others, so you may want to have more than one type in your pantry.

Figure 1. Dietary Fats and Mortality Rates

Sesame oil nutrition facts

Sesame oil has 40 calories per teaspoon.

Table 1. Sesame oil nutrition

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	teaspoon 4.5 g
Approximates
Water	g	0	0
Energy	kcal	884	40
Protein	g	0	0
Total lipid (fat)	g	100	4.5
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	0	0
Fiber, total dietary	g	0	0
Sugars, total	g	0	0
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	0	0
Iron, Fe	mg	0	0
Magnesium, Mg	mg	0	0
Phosphorus, P	mg	0	0
Potassium, K	mg	0	0
Sodium, Na	mg	0	0
Zinc, Zn	mg	0	0
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0
Thiamin	mg	0	0
Riboflavin	mg	0	0
Niacin	mg	0	0
Vitamin B-6	mg	0	0
Folate, DFE	µg	0	0
Vitamin B-12	µg	0	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0	0
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	1.4	0.06
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0	0
Vitamin D	IU	0	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	13.6	0.6
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	14.2	0.639
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	39.7	1.786
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	41.7	1.877
Cholesterol	mg	0	0
Other
Caffeine	mg	0	0

[Source ¹¹]

What are monounsaturated fats?

From a chemical standpoint, monounsaturated fats are simply fat molecules that have one unsaturated carbon bond in the molecule, this is also called a double bond. Oils that contain monounsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature but start to turn solid when chilled. Monounsaturated fats are found in high concentrations in olive oil, peanut oil, canola, avocados, almonds, safflower oils, hazelnuts, pecans, pumpkin seeds and sesame seeds and most nuts. Monounsaturated fats also are part of most animal fats such as fats from chicken, pork, beef, and wild game. When you dip your bread in olive oil at an Italian restaurant, you’re getting mostly monounsaturated fat. Monounsaturated fats have a single carbon-to-carbon double bond (see Figure 2 below). The result is that it has two fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fat and a bend at the double bond. This structure keeps monounsaturated fats liquid at room temperature. The carbon-carbon double bond found in monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids can exist in the cis or trans configuration. When the two hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond, the configuration is called trans. When the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond, the configuration is called cis.

The discovery that monounsaturated fat could be healthful came from the Seven Countries Study during the 1960s. It revealed that people in Greece and other parts of the Mediterranean region enjoyed a low rate of heart disease despite a high-fat diet. The main fat in their diet, though, was not the saturated animal fat common in countries with higher rates of heart disease. It was olive oil, which contains mainly monounsaturated fat. This finding produced a surge of interest in olive oil and the “Mediterranean Diet” a style of eating regarded as a healthful choice today.

Although there’s no recommended daily intake of monounsaturated fats, the Institute of Medicine recommends using them as much as possible along with polyunsaturated fats to replace saturated and trans fats.

Figure 2. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Structure

monounsaturated fatty acids structure

Figure 3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Structure

polyunsaturated fatty acids structure

Which foods contain monounsaturated fats?

Most foods contain a combination of different fats.

Examples of foods high in monounsaturated fats include plant-based liquid oils such as:

olive oil,
canola oil,
peanut oil,
safflower oil and
sesame oil.

Other sources include avocados, peanut butter and many nuts and seeds.

How do monounsaturated fats affect my health?

Monounsaturated fats can help reduce bad cholesterol levels in your blood which can lower your risk of heart disease and stroke. They also provide nutrients to help develop and maintain your body’s cells. Oils rich in monounsaturated fats also contribute vitamin E to the diet, an antioxidant vitamin most Americans need more of.

Are monounsaturated fats better for me than saturated fats or trans fats?

Yes. While, all fats provide 9 calories per gram, monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats can have a positive effect on your health, when eaten in moderation. The bad fats –saturated fats and trans fats – can negatively affect your health.

Sesame oil health benefits

Sesame oil has been shown to reduce high blood pressure and lower the amount of medication needed to control hypertension ¹². Sesame oil is also capable of reducing plasma cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) “bad” cholesterol, and triglyceride (TG) levels ¹³. Earlier studies of sesame oil diet-fed low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout (LDLR^−/−) female mice showed that the plasma levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, VLDL (very low density LDL) “bad” cholesterol, and LDL “bad” cholesterol were decreased, while HDL “good” cholesterol was significantly increased in these animals compared to high-fat diet-fed control animals ¹⁴. The sesame oil diet effectively prevented inflammation and atherosclerotic lesion formation in LDL-R−/− male mice ¹⁵. The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acid composition in sesame oil is less ¹⁶ compared with many other oils, but the observed level of inhibition of atherosclerosis is remarkable. This extraordinary finding prompted scientists to question whether components in the sesame oil beyond simply the fatty acid composition could be responsible for the observed level of atherosclerotic inhibition.

Sesame oil contains lignans, which are known to complex cholesterol from the gut and prevent cholesterol absorption ¹⁷. The contribution of these lignans to the observed drop in plasma cholesterol is plausible. Similarly, nonsaponifiable components of sesame oil might be contributing to the prevention of cholesterol absorption. We observed a decrease in the mRNA level of CD68, a marker for monocyte/macrophages, in nonsaponifiable components of sesame oil diet-fed animals compared to high fat diet-fed animals. The decrease of CD68 in the aortic arch area containing lesions is a confirmation that the presence of foam cell-forming macrophages in nonsaponifiable components of sesame oil animals was reduced. Animal data suggest that nonsaponifiable components of sesame oil is able to inhibit atherosclerosis in animals ¹⁷.

Sesame oil uses

In Ayurvedic medicine, sesame oil is used for massaging as it is believed to rid the body of heat due to its viscous nature upon rubbing ¹⁸.

In industry, sesame oil may be used as ¹⁹:

a solvent in injected drugs or intravenous drip solutions,
a cosmetics carrier oil,
coating stored grains to prevent weevil attacks. The oil also has synergy with some insecticides ²⁰.

Low-grade sesame oil is used locally in soaps, paints, lubricants, and illuminants ¹⁹.

Sesame oil for cooking

Besides being used as a cooking oil in South India, sesame oil is used as a flavor enhancer in Middle Eastern, African, and Southeast Asian cuisines. Sesame oil has a distinctive nutty aroma and taste.

One type of sesame oil, a pale yellow liquid with a pleasant grain-like odor and somewhat nutty taste, is used as frying oil ¹⁹. A second type of oil, amber-colored and aromatic, is made from pressed and toasted sesame seeds and is used as a flavoring agent in the final stages of cooking ¹⁹.

Despite sesame oil’s high proportion (41%) of polyunsaturated (omega-6) fatty acids, it is least prone, among cooking oils with high smoke points, to turn rancid when kept in the open ²¹. This is due to the natural antioxidants, such as sesamol, present in the oil ¹⁹.

Light sesame oil has a high smoke point and is suitable for deep-frying, while dark sesame oil (from roasted sesame seeds) has a slightly lower smoke point and is unsuitable for deep-frying ¹⁹. Instead it can be used for the stir frying of meats or vegetables, sautéing, or for the making of an omelette.

Sesame oil is most popular in Asia, especially in Korea, China, and the South Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, where its widespread use is similar to that of olive oil in the Mediterranean.

East Asian cuisines often use roasted sesame oil for seasoning.
The Chinese use sesame oil in the preparation of meals.
In Japan, rāyu is a paste made of chili-sesame oil seasoning and used as a spicy topping on various foods, or mixed with vinegar and soy sauce and used as a dip.
In South India, before the advent of modern refined oils produced on a large scale, sesame oil was used traditionally for curries and gravies. It continues to be used, particularly in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, mixed with foods that are hot and spicy as it neutralizes the heat. It is often mixed in with a special spice powder that accompanies idli and dosa as well as rice mixed with spice powders (such as paruppu podi).

Sesame oil vs olive oil

Olive oil is a key component of the Mediterranean Diet (MedDiet), being the main source of vegetable fat, especially monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) ²². Virgin olive oil, produced by mechanically pressing ripe olives, contains multiple bioactive and antioxidant components such as polyphenols, phytosterols and vitamin E ²², and has an acidity of <1.5%. Extra-virgin olive oil is also produced by mechanically pressing the olives but is the oil with the best quality, the most intense taste and its acidity is <1% ²³. In contrast, common olive oil, obtained from a mixture of virgin and refined oil (usually more than 80% is refined), has fewer antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds. Since refined olive oil during the refining process loses phytochemicals, this oil is mixed with virgin olive oil to enhance the flavor, constituting the so-called common olive oil ²⁴.

Evidence suggests that olive oil intake is inversely associated with cardiovascular disease in the Spanish general population ²⁵ and in a cohort of Italian women ²⁶. In the Spanish cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study, total olive oil intake has been associated with a decreased risk of coronary heart disease, and also all-cause and cardiovascular mortality ²⁷. Similarly, a lower risk of mortality was associated with regular consumption of olive oil in an Italian population after a heart attack ²⁸ and also in an elderly population ²⁹. A recent meta-analysis concluded that epidemiologic studies consistently found an inverse association between olive oil consumption and stroke, but there were inconsistencies between studies assessing coronary heart disease (coronary artery disease) as the end-point ³⁰. Of note, most of the previous studies made no distinction among the different varieties of olive oil ³¹. Except for the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition-Spanish cohort that found a greater beneficial effect in coronary heart disease for the virgin olive oil variety than for the common variety ³² and similar effects for both varieties on all-cause mortality ³³. This distinction is important because extra-virgin olive oil contains much higher amounts of polyphenols than common olive oil. These polyphenols may have cardiovascular benefits beyond the lipid profile. It has also been reported that olive oil intake could be beneficial in the prevention of certain cancers, such as breast cancer ³⁴, but the evidence is weaker.

Recently, in the context of the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts Study, it has been demonstrated that persons at high cardiovascular risk, the incidence of major cardiovascular events was lower among those assigned to a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts than among those assigned to a reduced-fat diet ³⁵.

Table 2. Olive oil nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	teaspoon 4.5 g
Approximates
Water	g	0	0
Energy	kcal	884	40
Protein	g	0	0
Total lipid (fat)	g	100	4.5
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	0	0
Fiber, total dietary	g	0	0
Sugars, total	g	0	0
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	1	0
Iron, Fe	mg	0.56	0.03
Magnesium, Mg	mg	0	0
Phosphorus, P	mg	0	0
Potassium, K	mg	1	0
Sodium, Na	mg	2	0
Zinc, Zn	mg	0	0
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0
Thiamin	mg	0	0
Riboflavin	mg	0	0
Niacin	mg	0	0
Vitamin B-6	mg	0	0
Folate, DFE	µg	0	0
Vitamin B-12	µg	0	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0	0
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	14.35	0.65
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0	0
Vitamin D	IU	0	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	60.2	2.7
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	13.808	0.621
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	72.961	3.283
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	10.523	0.474
Cholesterol	mg	0	0
Other
Caffeine	mg	0	0

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Bendinelli B, Masala G, Saieva C, Salvini S, Calonico C, Sacerdote C, Agnoli C, Grioni S, Frasca G, Mattiello A, Chiodini P, Tumino R, Vineis P, Palli D, Panico S. Fruit, vegetables, and olive oil and risk of coronary heart disease in Italian women: the EPICOR Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:275–283. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.000521
Buckland G, Travier N, Barricarte A, Ardanaz E, Moreno-Iribas C, Sanchez M-J, Molina-Montes E, Chirlaque MD, Huerta JM, Navarro C, Redondo ML, Amiano P, Dorronsoro M, Larranaga N, Gonzalez CA. Olive oil intake and CHD in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition Spanish cohort. Br J Nutr. 2012;108:2075–2082. doi: 10.1017/S000711451200298X
Buckland G, Mayen AL, Agudo A, Travier N, Navarro C, Huerta JM, Chirlaque MD, Barricarte A, Ardanaz E, Moreno-Iribas C, Marin P, Quiros JR, Redondo M-L, Amiano P, Dorronsoro M, Arriola L, Molina E, Sanchez M-J, Gonzalez CA. Olive oil intake and mortality within the Spanish population (EPIC-Spain) Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96:142–149. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.111.024216
Pelucchi C, Bosetti C, Negri E, Lipworth L, La Vecchia C. Olive oil and cancer risk: an update of epidemiological findings through 2010. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17:805–812. doi: 10.2174/138161211795428920 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21443483
Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts. N Engl J Med. 2018 Jun 21;378(25):e34. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1800389. Epub 2018 Jun 13. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1800389

Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Is peanut oil healthy

by Health Jade Team on August 9, 2018

Is peanut oil healthy?

The short answer is yes, peanut oil good for you because peanut oil has 43% content of monounsaturated fats (MUFAs) and 35% polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) (see Table 1 below). Monounsaturated fats can have a beneficial effect on your heart when eaten in moderation and when used to replace saturated fat and trans fat in your diet. The cholesterol-lowering effect of peanut oil (and peanuts) could be attributed to the content of monounsaturated fats (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) in peanut oil and peanuts and that part of the effect is due to the replacement of mixtures of saturated fats in the diet by monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats, which are the prevalent fatty acids in peanut oil and peanuts. The American Heart Association recommends that for good health, the majority of the fats that you eat should be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated ¹, ². Therefore, you should eat foods containing monounsaturated fats and/or polyunsaturated fats instead of foods that contain saturated fats and/or trans fats.

Replacing bad fats (saturated and trans) with healthier fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) is better for your heart.

One way you can do this is by choosing healthier nontropical vegetable oils for cooking and preparing food.

Use these oils instead of solid fats (including butter, shortening, lard and hard stick margarine) and tropical oils (including palm and coconut oil), which can have a lot of saturated fat.

Cooking oils that contain more monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and less saturated fat:

Canola oil
Corn oil
Olive oil
Peanut oil
Safflower oil
Soybean oil
Sunflower oil

In general, choose oils with less than 4 grams of saturated fat per tablespoon, and no partially hydrogenated oils or trans fats.

Figure 1. Dietary Fats and Mortality Rates

What are monounsaturated fats?

Figure 2. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Structure

monounsaturated fatty acids structure

Figure 3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Structure

polyunsaturated fatty acids structure

Which foods contain monounsaturated fats?

Most foods contain a combination of different fats.

Examples of foods high in monounsaturated fats include plant-based liquid oils such as:

olive oil,
canola oil,
peanut oil,
safflower oil and
sesame oil.

Other sources include avocados, peanut butter and many nuts and seeds.

How do monounsaturated fats affect my health?

Are monounsaturated fats better for me than saturated fats or trans fats?

Peanut allergy peanut oil

Peanut allergy is the most common cause of deaths related to food allergy. Peanut oil is often suspected of causing reactions to meals in which a more obvious source of peanut cannot be found.

Refined peanut oil is odorless and flavorless and is commonly used in catering. Crude peanut oil, which is known to contain considerable amounts of protein is used only rarely, when a peanut flavor is deliberately required.

In vivo challenges of 60 subjects with proved peanut allergy showed no reaction to refined peanut oil, but six (10%) reacted to the crude peanut oil ³.

If refined peanut oil is used properly and is not reused after cooking peanuts, it seems to be safe for most people with peanut allergy; crude oil represents a risk ³.

Crude peanut oil caused allergic reactions in 10% of allergic subjects studied and should continue to be avoided. Refined peanut oil did not pose a risk to any of the subjects. It would be reasonable to recommend a change in labeling to distinguish refined from crude peanut oil. The confusing use of the term peanut oil should be stopped, and food labeling should distinguish between refined and crude peanut oils.

Peanut oil ingestion does not pose a risk to peanut-sensitive individuals ⁴. Ten peanut-sensitive patients were enrolled in a double-blind crossover trial to determine whether ingestion of peanut oil can induce adverse reactions in such individuals ⁴. All patients had experienced prior allergic reactions to peanut ingestion, including any of the following: generalized urticaria, angioedema, abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, bronchospasm, or shock. All patients had elevated levels of serum IgE antibodies to both crude peanut extract and the purified peanut allergen, Peanut-I, by RAST assay; binding values ranged from 2 to 26 times that of negative control serum. All patients demonstrated negative puncture skin tests to both peanut oil and olive oil (control). At 30-min intervals, patients ingested 1, 2, and 5 ml of either oil contained in 1 ml capsules while under constant observation. These quantities exceed the maximum estimated dose of peanut oil that would occur in single meals. Patients returned 2 wk later for ingestion challenge with the remaining oil. No untoward reactions were observed with either peanut oil or olive oil.

The results of this double-blind crossover trial clearly indicate that peanut oil is not allergenic to peanut-sensitive individuals ⁴. Individuals with peanut hypersensitivity do not need to eliminate peanut oil from their diets ⁴. In managing the peanut-sensitive individual, usual and reasonable advice has been to avoid peanuts and other potential sources of the allergen. This warning has commonly included an avoidance of peanut oil. However, based on the results of this study, it is not necessary to eliminate or restrict the use of peanut oil by peanut-sensitive individuals. Undue restriction of the allergic patient’s diet is not only confusing to the patient but also raises unwarranted and unnecessary anxiety.

Peanut oil bottom line

Most health professionals agree that refined peanut oil is unlikely to be a problem for people with peanut allergy, because almost all the proteins that cause allergic reactions are likely to be removed during the manufacturing process. However, refined peanut oil is still covered by food labeling rules and so it will be listed as ‘peanut oil’ when used in pre-packed foods.
Cold-pressed, or unrefined/unprocessed (crude) peanut oil can contain peanut proteins, which can cause a reaction in people who are sensitive. Remember that peanut oil is often called ‘groundnut oil’.

Does peanut oil elicit an allergic reaction?

If refined peanut oil is used properly and is not reused after cooking peanuts, it seems to be safe for most people with peanut allergy; crude oil, however, represents a risk. Cold pressed, expelled or extruded peanut oil is NOT safe for peanut allergic individuals.

Peanut oil nutrition

Monounsaturated fats – like all fats – contain 9 calories per gram.

Table 1. Peanut oil nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Tbsp 14 g	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	120	857
Protein	g	0	0
Total lipid (fat)	g	14	100
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	0	0
Minerals
Sodium, Na	mg	0	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	2.5	17.86
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	6	42.86
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	4.999	35.71
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0	0
Cholesterol	mg	0	0

[Source ⁵]

Peanut oil vs Canola oil

Table 2. Canola oil nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Tbsp 14 g	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	120	857
Protein	g	0	0
Total lipid (fat)	g	14	100
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	0	0
Minerals
Sodium, Na	mg	0	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	1	7.14
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	9.001	64.29
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	4	28.57
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0	0
Cholesterol	mg	0	0

[Source ⁵]

Peanut oil vs Vegetable oil

Table 3. Vegetable oil (soybean oil) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Tbsp 14 g	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	120	857
Protein	g	0	0
Total lipid (fat)	g	14	100
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	0	0
Fiber, total dietary	g	0	0
Sugars, total	g	0	0
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	0	0
Iron, Fe	mg	0	0
Sodium, Na	mg	0	0
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	2.001	14.29
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	3	21.43
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	8	57.14
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0	0
Cholesterol	mg	0	0

[Source ⁵]

Cooking with peanut oil

You can usually use peanut oil just like solid cooking fats. For example, use peanut oil to:

Make your own salad dressings, marinades, dips and sauces.
Grill, sauté, stir fry, bake or roast foods.
Coat pans to keep food from sticking.
Spread or drizzle on foods for flavor.
“Season” cast-iron cookware.
Substitute for butter, margarine or solid fats in recipes.

References

Advisory: Replacing saturated fat with healthier fat could lower cardiovascular risks. http://www.heart.org/en/news/2018/07/17/advisory-replacing-saturated-fat-with-healthier-fat-could-lower-cardiovascular-risks
Healthy Cooking Oils. http://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/fats/healthy-cooking-oils
Randomised, double blind, crossover challenge study of allergenicity of peanut oils in subjects allergic to peanuts. BMJ 1997;314:1084
Peanut oil is not allergenic to peanut-sensitive individuals. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1981 Nov;68(5):372-5. https://www.jacionline.org/article/0091-6749(81)90135-4/pdf
United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. USDA Branded Food Products Database. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list

Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Is kimchi good for you?

by Health Jade Team on May 22, 2018

What is kimchi

Kimchi is a traditional fermented vegetable, a staple in Korean cuisine and is an indispensable side dish of every meal in Korea ¹. Moreover, the annual tradition Gimjang involves preparing and storing a large quantity of kimchi for the winter season ². There are about 187 kinds of Kimchi according to the ingredients and processing methods ³. Kimchi is prepared by various ingredients, such as Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis Rupr.), processed with seasoning mixture mainly consisting of red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) powder, garlic, ginger, edible Allium varieties other than garlic, and radish in the presence of salt. These ingredients may be chopped, sliced and broken into pieces ⁴. Kimchi is then fermented in brine before or after being packaged into appropriate containers to ensure the proper ripening and preservation of the product by lactic acid production at low temperatures. The drained weight of the final product, as a percentage of the indicated weight, should be not less than 80% by weight, calculated on the basis of the weight of distilled water at 20 °C which the sealed container will hold when completely filled. The drained weight of the final product as a percentage by the indicated weight shall not be less than 80% by weight. Kimchi is currently recognized worldwide as a nutritious and healthy food ⁵.

Traditional kimchi that is fermented naturally at low temperatures without any starter is a complex system, with dynamic biological and biochemical changes during fermentation ⁶. Because kimchi fermentation is accomplished by a succession of naturally occurring different lactic acid bacteria, fermentative metabolic features of microbial communities during kimchi fermentation process are different every time, which makes it difficult to consistently produce standardized kimchi with high quality ⁶. Until now, rational and systematic approaches to control kimchi fermentation for the production of kimchi with uniform quality have not been developed because the understanding of kimchi microbial communities during fermentation has not yet been accomplished ⁶. Therefore, comprehensive investigation on the fermentative metabolic features of kimchi lactic acid bacteria during fermentation is indispensable to control kimchi fermentation ⁷. With metatranscriptomic analysis, it is relatively easy to investigate the metabolic features of microbial communities in fermented foods such as kimchi, because these communities are not so complex as those in other natural environments. Therefore, a transcriptomic analysis was performed to examine the metabolic features of Leuconostoc mesenteroides during kimchi fermentation. Relative abundances (%) of mRNA sequencing reads mapped to the genomes of Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains for total lactic acid bacteria mRNA sequencing reads during the kimchi fermentation were calculated. The relative abundances were high at the early kimchi fermentation period and decreased to the lowest value at 18 days as the fermentation progressed, suggesting that members of Leuconostoc mesenteroides are more responsible for kimchi fermentation during the early fermentation period. The metabolic properties of Leuconostoc mesenteroides during kimchi fermentation were investigated by metabolic mapping of the Leuconostoc mesenteroides mRNA sequencing. The transcriptomic analysis showed that genes associated with carbohydrate metabolisms, nucleotide metabolism, fatty acid biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, riboflavin metabolism, and glutamine and glutamate metabolism were highly expressed during kimchi fermentation ⁶. Genes associated with fatty acid biosynthesis, nucleotide metabolism, and amino acid metabolism, probably more related to cell growth, were up-regulated in Leuconostoc mesenteroides during the early kimchi fermentation period, which may explain why Leuconostoc mesenteroides is more abundant at that stage. Conversely, genes associated with oxidative phosphorylation, biosynthesis of other secondary metabolisms, and glutamine and glutamate metabolism were up-regulated during the late kimchi fermentation period ⁶. Genes associated with the biosynthesis of riboflavin were highly expressed during the entire kimchi fermentation, suggesting that Leuconostoc mesenteroides may be an important producer of riboflavin during the kimchi fermentation ⁶.

Leuconostoc mesenteroides (Leu. mesenteroides) comprises Gram-positive, catalase-negative, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming, and spherical heterofermentative and mostly dextran-producing lactic acid bacteria (LAB), with coccus shapes and relatively low G + C contents ⁸. Leuconostoc mesenteroides members are reported to be mainly responsible for the fermentation of various vegetables, such as kimchi and sauerkraut (pickled cabbage), under low temperature and moderate salinity conditions, although some Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains have been isolated from dairy products such as cheese ⁸. In particular, Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains were found to be the major lactic acid bacteria, along with Lactobacillus sakei and Weissella koreensis, present during kimchi fermentation, suggesting that they are well adapted to kimchi fermentation conditions ⁷. Moreover, because Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains produce mannitol, a compound with antidiabetic and anticarcinogenic properties known for imparting a refreshing taste, and bacteriocins during fermentation and have some health improving effects ⁹, they have been considered as starter cultures for kimchi fermentation or potential probiotics in industries ¹⁰.

Although Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains are generally considered to be non-infectious agents in humans, there have been some clinical reports that Leuconostoc mesenteroides might be associated with certain human diseases such as brain abscess, endocarditis, nosocomial outbreaks, and central nervous system tuberculosis ¹¹. In addition, there is a report that Leuconostoc mesenteroides can cause spoilage in some types of food products ¹². These reports suggest that further studies on the physiological and fermentative properties of Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains are needed to vouch for the safety and quality of kimchi and sauerkraut products fermented with Leuconostoc mesenteroides ⁶.

Figure 1. Kimchi

Kimchi nutrition

Nutritionally, Kimchi is a low-calorie food (15 kcal/100 g) and an important source of vitamins, minerals, and fiber ¹³. It is also a good source of phytochemicals (e.g., β-sitosterol, glucosinolates, isothiocyanate, indoles, allyl compounds) and probiotic strains (e.g., Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides) ¹⁴. In regard to these nutrition properties, many functional properties of Kimchi have been reported including anti-oxidative activity ¹⁵, anti-mutagenic and anti-tumor activities ¹⁶, anti-atherogenic activity ¹⁷ and weight-controlling activity ¹⁸.

Table 1. Kimchi nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	94.3
Energy	kcal	15
Energy	kJ	65
Protein	g	1.1
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.5
Ash	g	1.7
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	2.4
Fiber, total dietary	g	1.6
Sugars, total	g	1.06
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	33
Iron, Fe	mg	2.5
Magnesium, Mg	mg	14
Phosphorus, P	mg	24
Potassium, K	mg	151
Sodium, Na	mg	498
Zinc, Zn	mg	0.22
Copper, Cu	mg	0.024
Selenium, Se	µg	0.5
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.01
Riboflavin	mg	0.21
Niacin	mg	1.1
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.213
Folate, total	µg	52
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	52
Folate, DFE	µg	52
Choline, total	mg	15.5
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	5
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	55
Carotene, alpha	µg	1
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	93
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	49
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	0.11
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	43.6
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.067
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
08:00:00	g	0
10:00:00	g	0
12:00:00	g	0.003
14:00:00	g	0.003
16:00:00	g	0.057
18:00:00	g	0.003
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.037
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.037
20:01:00	g	0
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.241
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.104
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.137
18:04:00	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁹]

Kimchi health benefits

In Korea, where the aging of population is rapidly increasing and westernized lifestyle is becoming more prevalent, cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome–related diseases such as type two diabetes mellitus are becoming important public health issues. In fact, during the last two decades, crude mortality from ischemic heart disease dramatically increased for men (10.3-fold increase), and women (17.5-fold increase), and diabetes-related mortality was also increased four times for men and six times for women ²⁰. These tendencies are shown throughout the world. Therefore, many trials to prevent or decrease the prevalence of these degenerative diseases have been performed with modification of environmental factors such as dietary patterns and screening for biologically effective compounds from foods.

Many studies have reported the beneficial effects of kimchi, including its anti-oxidative activity ²¹, ²², anti-obesity ²³, anti-asthma ²⁴, anti-aging effects ²⁵, anti-cancer and antimutagenic activities ²⁶, ²⁷, anti-atherosclerotic ²⁸ and cholesterol- lowering effects ²⁹ and antimicrobial activity ³⁰, immune stimulatory activity ³¹, weight reduction and lipid lowering effects ³² and anti-atherogenic activity ³³.

Numerous studies have reported on the lipid-lowering mechanisms of kimchi or its ingredients such as Chinese cabbage, hot red pepper, garlic, green leek, and ginger ²⁰. β-sitosterol in Chinese cabbage, S-methlycysteinsulfoxide and S-allylcysteinsulfoxide in garlic, capsaicin in red pepper are known bioactive compounds present in kimchi ingredients responsible for lowering blood lipids ³⁴. β-Sitosterol, a phyto-cholesterol, competes with dietary cholesterol in the intestine for absorption ³⁵. Sulfur compounds in onion and garlic stimulate lipolysis by elevating the hormone secretion such as adrenalin and glucagon, or suppressing enzyme activities responsible for cholesterol synthesis. Acetyl-CoA synthetase and/or 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl CoA reductase activity was inhibited by allin or allicine ³⁴. Capsaicin stimulates the secretion of plasma cholesterol to extra-circulation as bile via elevating 7α-hydroxylase activity ³⁶. It also increases energy expenditure by regulating thyroid hormone secretion ³⁷. Additionally, lactic acid bacteria produced during the fermentation of kimchi are believed to contribute to the cholesterol lowering activity. Lactobacillus acidophilus usually detected in kimchi can bind the cholesterol in their cell wall besides decomposing the cholesterol for assimilation and de-conjugates the bile acids ³⁸. In previous study, kimchi effectively attenuated plasma cholesterol levels in rats and rabbits fed high cholesterol diets ³⁹. In addition, hypercholesterolemic rabbits administered bioactive compound of kimchi, 3-(4′-hydroxyl-3′,5′-dimethoxyphenyl)propionic acid (HDMPPA) showed a drop in plasma cholesterol and LDL “bad” cholesterol within 4 days of treatment ⁴⁰. These results supported the findings that kimchi supplementation to young adults for a short period could alleviate serum cholesterol concentration ⁴¹. In another study ⁴¹, kimchi consumption significantly lowered the fasting blood glucose concentration according to amount of kimchi intake. There are several considerations about the lowering effect of kimchi on fasting blood glucose. Compared with energy and carbohydrate intake between pre- and post-test, these two factors showed no difference in the two groups. Furthermore, in a previous questionnaire for physical activity, 36% and 27% subjects in the low and high group answered “no extra exercise”, respectively. These data suggested that a relatively greater reduction of fasting blood glucose or plasma lipids in the high group could be related with intake of kimchi ⁴¹.

Focusing on the effect of fermentation, this study ⁴² hypothesized that consumption of fermented kimchi would have more beneficial effects compared with that of fresh kimchi on metabolic parameters that are related to cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome risks in overweight and obese subjects. Twenty-two overweight and obese patients with body mass indexes greater than 25 kg/m² were randomly assigned to two 4-week diet phases separated by a 2-week washout period (crossover design). During each diet phase, the subjects consumed either fresh or fermented kimchi. Anthropometric data showed significant decreases in body weight, body mass index, and body fat in both groups, and the fermented kimchi group showed a significant decrease in the waist-hip ratio and fasting blood glucose. Net differences in the systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, percent body fat, fasting glucose, and total cholesterol in the fermented kimchi group were significantly greater than those in the fresh kimchi group. There was also a tendency for a decrease in fasting insulin after consumption of fermented kimchi. Therefore, the ingestion of fermented kimchi had positive effects on various factors associated with metabolic syndrome, including systolic and diastolic blood pressures, percent body fat, fasting glucose, and total cholesterol, compared with the fresh kimchi. These results suggest that the maturity of kimchi (fresh vs fermented) may affect obesity, lipid metabolism, and inflammatory processes ⁴².

Chinese cabbage, a main ingredient of Kimchi, is rich in minerals, vitamin C, dietary fibers, and especially phytochemicals ⁴³. Also, cabbage contains several organic sulfur compounds, such as isothiocyanates and dithiolethiones. In a previous study ⁴⁴, these organic sulfur compounds were shown to exert diverse biological effects including the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, antimicrobial effects, and free radical scavenging. Another ingredient, garlic, contains various sulfur-contained compounds; S-allyl-l-cysteine, S-allyl-l-cysteine sulfoxides and alliin ⁴⁵. It suppress the production of inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-a, IL-1, IL-6, and interferon-γ ⁴⁶. Red pepper contains high levels (25-80 mg%) of capsaicin. Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) is involved in physiological functions related to immune response ⁴⁷.

In a previous study, 3-(4′-hydroxyl-3′,5′-dimethoxyphenyl)propionic acid (HDMPPA), an active principle in cabbage kimchi ⁴⁸, demonstrated anti-atherogenic activity in terms of preventing the fatty streak formation or atherosclerosis in rabbits ⁴⁹. Among the possible mechanisms, it was suggested that HDMPPA suppressed transcription rate for the enzymes responsible for the production of reactive oxygen species and also inhibited adhesion molecule expression whereas endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity in the aorta was elevated ⁵⁰. In a human study, kimchi consumption exerted favorable plasma lipid lowering effects and improved metabolic syndrome parameters in obese people ⁵¹.

Probiotics are living micro-organisms that have a health benefit for their host. Orally ingested probiotic bacteria are able to modulate the immune system; however, differences exist in the immunomodulatory effects of different probiotic strains ⁵². Especially, lactic acid bacteria produced during the fermentation process from Kimchi : Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Leuconostoc citreum, Leuconostoc gasicomitatum, Leuconostoc kimchii, Leuconostoc inhae, Weissella Koreensis, Weissella cibaria, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillus buchneri, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus fermentum, Pediococcus acidilactici and Pediococcus Pentosaceus ⁵³.

According to the Lee et al. ⁵⁴, suppressor T lymphocyte cells and Natural killer cells are increased with Lactobacillus casei and Bifidobacterium longumi treatment. However, another study ⁵⁵, T-helper cells and suppressor T cells were not affected by the consumption of Kimchi. T lymphocyte cells play central roles in the immune system, in which their major function assisting B lymphocyte cells in the production of antibodies. Serum Ig (immunoglobulin) levels are routinely measured in clinical practice to examine immune balance. Typical ranges are suggested (Ig A; 1.4-0.4 mg/mL, Ig G; 8-16 mg/mL, and Ig M; 0.5-2.0 ng/mL). Low levels of Ig were observed in humoral immunodeficiency, while high levels of Ig were observed in chronic inflammatory diseases. Until now, many studies showed that Kimchi inhibited Ig E levels in the NC/nga mice atopic animal model [24,25]. Also, lactobacillus plantarum isolated from Kimchi increased the production of Ig A in normal or S180-bearing BALB/C tumor-induced mouse ⁵⁶. On the other hand, 4 weeks of Kimchi supplementation does not changes of Ig A, Ig G or Ig M ⁵⁵.

Gut microbiota dysbiosis plays a key role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Much research has focused on the use of gut microbiota for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Probiotics, live microorganisms that benefit host health, are commonly used to control chronic gastrointestinal inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species are widely used as probiotics ⁵⁷. Administration of Lactobacillus plantarum ameliorates the severity of colitis in IL-10-knockout mice ⁵⁸. Lactobacillus paracasei isolated from kimchi, reduces colitis disease by decreasing the number of Th1 (IFN-γ or Interferon gamma) cells and macrophages in the lamina propria ⁵⁹. Treatment with Lactobacillus acidophilus reduces the STAT3 and phosphorylated STAT3 levels in colon tissue from mice with Dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and increases the number of Treg cells among intestinal intraepithelial and lamina propria lymphocytes in a 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis model ⁶⁰. Treatment with Bifidobacterium longum ameliorates colorectal colitis in rats by altering the methylation level of the Foxp3 promoter, resulting in an increased number of Treg cells ⁶¹. Moreover, Streptococcus thermophilus suppresses bacterial translocation, which reduces gastrointestinal bleeding and weight loss ⁶². Treatment with lactobacilli and bifidobacteria promoted recovery of Dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced intestinal injury and inflammation in a mouse model of colitis ⁶³. Lactobacillus casei and Bifidobacterium lactis ameliorated injury to the intestinal mucosa and liver in a 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis model ⁶⁴. Also, treatment with a probiotic combination that included lactobacilli, bifidobacteria, and streptococci reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines in colitis ⁶⁵.

Cytokines, protein mediators produced by immune cells, are involved in immune regulation. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines are increased in chronic inflammatory diseases while the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines are decreased. Kim et al. ¹⁸ showed that the consumption of fermented Kimchi (300 g/day for 4 weeks) had no effects on the levels of Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) and Interleukin 6 (IL-6) in overweight and obese patients (22 subjects, mean age of 38.6 ± 8.5 years). In another study ⁵⁵, the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly decreased in the Kimchi and non-Kimchi groups. It is unclear why the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the non-Kimchi group were decreased. The study author ⁵⁵ postulated the decreased levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in placebo group may be due to the use of radish. Because of these conflicting results more research are needed before any opinion can be formed regarding the effects of kimchi on the immune system (e.g., immune stimulating activity).

References

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Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Cucumber

by Health Jade Team on May 20, 2018

What is a cucumber

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is a widely cultivated fruit and it’s a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which includes species with therapeutic potential such as melon, squash, and pumpkin ¹. Cucumber is a creeping vine that bears cucumiform fruits but are eaten as vegetables. Cucumber is widely consumed fresh in salads or fermented (pickles) or as a cooked vegetable. The cucumber is originally from South Asia, but now grows on most continents. Many different types of cucumber are traded on the global market. Cucumber is susceptible to fruit rot caused by the oomycete pathogen, Phytophthora capsici ². Though Phytophthora capsici infects vegetative tissues in most crops, in cucumber, the fruits are the primary target of infection ³. Cucumber is primarily eaten immature, and they’re typically harvested at 8–12 days post-pollination, while fruit ripening and seed maturity is at ~30–35 days post-pollination ⁴.

Cucumber varieties

Cucumbers are classified into three main cultivar groups: “slicing”, “pickling”, and “burpless”.

Slicing cucumber

Cucumbers grown to eat fresh are called slicing cucumbers. The main varieties of slicers mature on vines with large leaves that provide shading. They are mainly eaten in the unripe green form, since the ripe yellow form normally becomes bitter and sour. Slicers grown commercially for the North American market are generally longer, smoother, more uniform in color, and have a much tougher skin. Slicers in other countries are smaller and have a thinner, more delicate skin, often having fewer seeds and being sold in a plastic skin for protection. Sometimes these are known as English cucumbers. This variety may also be called a “telegraph cucumber”, particularly in Australasia. Smaller slicing cucumbers can also be pickled.

Pickling cucumber

Pickling with brine, sugar, vinegar, and spices creates various, flavored products from cucumbers and other foods. Although any cucumber can be pickled, commercial pickles are made from cucumbers specially bred for uniformity of length-to-diameter ratio and lack of voids in the flesh. Those cucumbers intended for pickling, called picklers, grow to about 7 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) long and 2.5 cm (1 in) wide. Compared to slicers, picklers tend to be shorter, thicker, less regularly shaped, and have bumpy skin with tiny white or black-dotted spines. Color can vary from creamy yellow to pale or dark green. The process of pickling led to the use of paraffin wax as a seal for jars used to preserve pickled and other preserved foods, and to the Mason jar made from thick glass able to tolerate high temperatures used in processing pickles and other foods for long-term shelf-life. The liquid made from pickling is called “pickle juice.”

Gherkin

Gherkins, also called cornichons, baby dills, or baby pickles, are small, whole, unsliced cucumbers, typically those 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 5 inches (13 cm) in length, often with bumpy skin, and pickled in variable combinations of brine, vinegar, spices, and sugar. In the United Kingdom, gherkins may be prepared predominantly in vinegar, imparting an acidic flavor “punch” as a side-dish for meals.

Although gherkins may be grown in greenhouses, they are commonly grown as a field crop, processed locally, and packaged in jars in Canada, the United States, and India. India, Turkey, Ukraine and Mexico compete as producers for the global gherkin market, with the European Union, United States, Canada, and Israel as major importers.

The word gherkin derived in the mid-17th century from early modern Dutch, gurken or augurken for “small pickled cucumber”. The term, West Indian gherkin, has been applied to Cucumis anguria L., a related species of Cucumis sativus, the most common cucumber plant.

Burpless cucumber

Burpless cucumbers are sweeter and have a thinner skin than other varieties of cucumber, and are reputed to be easy to digest and to have a pleasant taste. They can grow as long as 2 feet (0.61 m). They are nearly seedless, and have a delicate skin. Most commonly grown in greenhouses, these parthenocarpic cucumbers are often found in grocery markets, shrink-wrapped in plastic. They are sometimes marketed as seedless or burpless, because the seeds and skin of other varieties of cucumbers are said to give some people gas.

Other cultivars

Lebanese cucumbers are small, smooth-skinned and mild, yet with a distinct flavor and aroma. Like the English cucumber, Lebanese cucumbers are nearly seedless.
East Asian cucumbers are mild, slender, deep green, and have a bumpy, ridged skin. They can be used for slicing, salads, pickling, etc., and are available year-round. They are usually burpless as well.
Persian cucumber, which are mini, seedless, and slightly sweet, are available from Canada during the summer, and all year-round in the US. Easy to cut and peel, it is on average 4–7 in (10–18 cm) long. They are commonly eaten chopped up in plain yogurt with mint or sliced thin and long with salt and lemon juice. Vines are parthenocarpic, requiring no pollinators for fruit set.
Beit Alpha cucumbers are small, sweet parthenocarpic cucumbers adapted to the dry climate of the Middle East.
Apple cucumbers are short, round cucumbers grown in New Zealand and parts of Europe, known for their light yellow-green color and mildly sweet flavor. When mature, the fruit may grow tiny spines, and contains numerous edible green seeds. The fruit is usually eaten raw, with skin.
Schälgurken cucumbers are eaten in Germany. Their thick skins are peeled and then they braised or fried, often with minced meat or dill. They are often known by the term ‘Schmorgurken’.
Dosakai is a yellow cucumber available in parts of India. These fruits are generally spherical in shape. It is commonly cooked as curry, added in sambar or soup, daal and also in making dosa-aavakaaya (Indian pickle) and chutney; it is also grown and available through farms in Central California.
Kekiri is a smooth skinned cucumber, relatively hard, and not used for salads. It is cooked as spicy curry. It is found in dry zone of Sri Lanka. It becomes orange colored when the fruit is matured.
Armenian cucumbers (also known as yard long cucumbers) are fruits produced by the plant Cucumis melo var. flexuosus. This is not the same species as the common cucumber (Cucumis sativus) although it is closely related. Armenian cucumbers have very long, ribbed fruit with a thin skin that does not require peeling, but are actually an immature melon. This is the variety sold in Middle Eastern markets as “pickled wild cucumber”.

Cucumber nutrition

In a 100-gram serving, raw cucumber (with peel) is 95% water, provides 67 kilojoules (16 Calories) and supplies low content of essential nutrients, as it is notable only for vitamin K at 16% of the Daily Value.

Table 1. Cucumber (raw) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	95.23
Energy	kcal	15
Energy	kJ	65
Protein	g	0.65
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.11
Ash	g	0.38
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	3.63
Fiber, total dietary	g	0.5
Sugars, total	g	1.67
Sucrose	g	0.03
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.76
Fructose	g	0.87
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0.01
Galactose	g	0
Starch	g	0.83
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	16
Iron, Fe	mg	0.28
Magnesium, Mg	mg	13
Phosphorus, P	mg	24
Potassium, K	mg	147
Sodium, Na	mg	2
Zinc, Zn	mg	0.2
Copper, Cu	mg	0.041
Manganese, Mn	mg	0.079
Selenium, Se	µg	0.3
Fluoride, F	µg	1.3
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	2.8
Thiamin	mg	0.027
Riboflavin	mg	0.033
Niacin	mg	0.098
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.259
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.04
Folate, total	µg	7
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	7
Folate, DFE	µg	7
Choline, total	mg	6
Betaine	mg	0.1
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	5
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	45
Carotene, alpha	µg	11
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	26
Vitamin A, IU	IU	105
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	23
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	0.03
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0.01
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	0.03
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	16.4
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.037
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
8:0	g	0
10:0	g	0
12:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.005
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	0.028
17:0	g	0
18:0	g	0.005
20:0	g	0
22:0	g	0
24:0	g	0
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.005
14:1	g	0
15:1	g	0
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0
17:1	g	0
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.005
20:1	g	0
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.032
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.028
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.005
18:4	g	0
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Phytosterols	mg	14
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.005
Threonine	g	0.019
Isoleucine	g	0.021
Leucine	g	0.029
Lysine	g	0.029
Methionine	g	0.006
Cystine	g	0.004
Phenylalanine	g	0.019
Tyrosine	g	0.011
Valine	g	0.022
Arginine	g	0.044
Histidine	g	0.01
Alanine	g	0.024
Aspartic acid	g	0.041
Glutamic acid	g	0.196
Glycine	g	0.024
Proline	g	0.015
Serine	g	0.02
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0
Flavan-3-ols
(+)-Catechin	mg	0
(-)-Epigallocatechin	mg	0
(-)-Epicatechin	mg	0
(-)-Epicatechin 3-gallate	mg	0
(-)-Epigallocatechin 3-gallate	mg	0
(+)-Gallocatechin	mg	0
Flavones
Apigenin	mg	0
Luteolin	mg	0
Flavonols
Isorhamnetin	mg	0
Kaempferol	mg	0.1
Myricetin	mg	0
Quercetin	mg	0
Isoflavones
Daidzein	mg	0
Genistein	mg	0
Total isoflavones	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin trimers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers)	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ⁵]

Table 2. Cucumber (raw and peeled) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	96.73
Energy	kcal	10
Energy	kJ	44
Protein	g	0.59
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.16
Ash	g	0.36
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	2.16
Fiber, total dietary	g	0.7
Sugars, total	g	1.38
Sucrose	g	0
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.63
Fructose	g	0.75
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0
Galactose	g	0
Starch	g	0.08
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	14
Iron, Fe	mg	0.22
Magnesium, Mg	mg	12
Phosphorus, P	mg	21
Potassium, K	mg	136
Sodium, Na	mg	2
Zinc, Zn	mg	0.17
Copper, Cu	mg	0.071
Manganese, Mn	mg	0.073
Selenium, Se	µg	0.1
Fluoride, F	µg	1.3
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	3.2
Thiamin	mg	0.031
Riboflavin	mg	0.025
Niacin	mg	0.037
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.24
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.051
Folate, total	µg	14
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	14
Folate, DFE	µg	14
Choline, total	mg	5.7
Betaine	mg	0.1
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	4
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	31
Carotene, alpha	µg	8
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	18
Vitamin A, IU	IU	72
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	16
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	0.03
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	0.02
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	7.2
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.078
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
8:0	g	0
10:0	g	0
12:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.01
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	0.058
17:0	g	0
18:0	g	0.01
20:0	g	0
22:0	g	0
24:0	g	0
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.01
14:1	g	0
15:1	g	0
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0
17:1	g	0
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.01
20:1	g	0
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.019
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.01
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.01
18:4	g	0
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.007
Threonine	g	0.012
Isoleucine	g	0.012
Leucine	g	0.025
Lysine	g	0.025
Methionine	g	0.012
Cystine	g	0.007
Phenylalanine	g	0.031
Tyrosine	g	0.002
Valine	g	0.012
Arginine	g	0.031
Histidine	g	0.002
Alanine	g	0.031
Aspartic acid	g	0.037
Glutamic acid	g	0.204
Glycine	g	0.025
Proline	g	0.012
Serine	g	0.025
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0
Isoflavones
Daidzein	mg	0
Genistein	mg	0
Total isoflavones	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin trimers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers)	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ⁵]

Health benefits of cucumber

Cucumber is a popular crop used in Indian traditional medicine since ancient times. Traditionally, cucumber plant has been used to treat headaches and hyperlipidemia, and to prevent constipation ¹. Cucumber seeds and cucumber fruit have refreshing properties, soothing irritated skin and reducing swelling ⁶. Cucumber is very high in water content and very low in calories. Cucumber has potential anti-diabetic, anti-hyperglycemic, lipid lowering and antioxidant activity in animal studies ⁷, ⁸. Cucumber has a cleansing action within the body by removing accumulated pockets of old waste materials and chemical toxins ⁷. Fresh cucumber fruit juice is used for nourishing the skin ⁷. It gives a soothing effect against skin irritations and reduces swelling. Cucumber also has the power to relax and alleviate the sunburn’s pain ⁷. The cucumber fruit is refrigerant (cooling), hemostatic (an agent that causes bleeding to stop), tonic and useful in hyperdipsia (intense thirst), sunstroke (heat stroke) ⁷. The cucumber seeds also have a cooling effect on the body and they are used to prevent constipation ⁷. Several bioactive compounds have been isolated from cucumber including cucurbitacins, cucumegastigmanes I and II, cucumerin A and B, vitexin, orientin, isoscoparin 2″-O-(6‴-(E)-p-coumaroyl) glucoside, apigenin 7-O-(6″-O-p-coumaroylglucoside) ⁷. Despite huge exploration of cucumber in agricultural field, comparatively very few studies have been published about its chemical profile and its therapeutic potential.

Moreover, cucumber has been reported to have antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties ⁹.

Cucumber is known to be rich in cucurbitacins ¹⁰. Cucurbitacins are mostly found in the members of the family Cucurbitaceae and are responsible for the bitter taste of cucumber. Pharmacological activities such as anti-bacterial and anti-tumor effects have been attributed to these structurally diverse triterpens ¹⁰. Cucurbitacins have become interesting subjects in science due to their medicinal and toxic properties ¹¹. Cucurbitacins are usually concentrated in fruits and roots at maturity and are responsible for bitter taste of cucumber. Cucumber seeds exhibit very low concentration of cucurbitacins ¹². The diversity of cucurbitacins lies in side chain derivatives that contribute to pharmacological actions ¹³. They are known according to their structural composition and designated by the letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, O, P, Q, R and S. Cucurbitacins have also been identified outside the cucurbitaceae family including members of Scrophulariaceae, Begoniaceae, Primulaceae, Liliaceae, Tropaeolaceae and Rosaceae families ¹⁴. Various cucurbitacins are made from chemical modification of cucurbitane (19(10–9ß)-abeo-5α-lanostane) with numerous activities such as anti-inflammatory, antitumor promotion, chemopreventive, hepatoprotective, anti-microbial, anthelmintic, antifeedant and antioxidant ¹⁵. CuE is one of the cucurbitacins and is an active secondary methabolite with inhibition of cell adhesion actions ¹⁶ and modulatory activity effect on the peripheral human lymphocytes ¹⁷. The compound has also been found to be a strong antifeedant for the flea beetle, bilirubin–albumin binding in human plasma and with inhibitory activity on cancer cell proliferation, actin polymerization and permeability ¹⁶. The compound also acts as agent to protect against certain diseases in plants due to its toxicity property ¹⁸. Cu E displays superior cytotoxicity due to more hydrophobicity than the other cucurbitacins ¹⁹.

Various biological activities attributed to Cucurbitacins with probable mechanish of action (s) have been summarized in Table 3 below.

Figure 1. Cucurbitacin analogs chemical structures

[Source ¹²]

Table 3. Reported biological activities of cucurbitacins with probable mechanism of action

[Source ¹²]

Anti-inflammatory activity

Cucurcitacin analogues viz. Cucurbitacin R and DHCB have been reported to possess anti-inflammatory potential and their action is reported to be mediated by inhibition of tumor necrosis factors (TNF)-α and other mediators of inflammation such as nitric-oxide synthase-2 and cyclo-oxygenase-2 ²⁰. Cucurbitacins B, D, E and I have been reported to inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 enzymes with no effect on COX-1 enzymes ²¹. The anti-inflammatory response of 23, 24-dihydrocucurbitacin D (DHCD) have been hypothesized to get mediated through blocking of NF-κ B activation thereby obstructing the release of nitrous oxide. DHCD can be taken up as probable lead and appraised for providing a promising anti-inflammatory agent ²².

Antitumor activity

Very less information is available on the role of Cucurbitacins at molecular level which has lead to slow advancement in the development of Cucurbitacins as anti-cancer agents. Cucurbitacin B (CuB) is a naturally occurring compound that is found abundantly in cucumbers and other vegetables, and it is known to exert anti-cancer activities (primarily via apoptosis-induction) in several human cancers ²³. Cucurbitacin B, a bioactive compound from cucumber, inhibits prostate cancer growth ²³. In relation to cancer, targets of Cucurbitacin actions involve growth inhibition, arrest of cell cycle at G2/M phase and induction of apoptosis in cancer cell. The mechanisms underlying anti-tumorigenic potentials of Cucurbitacins involve inhibition of Janus kinase/Signal Transducer Activator of Transcription 3 (JAK/STAT3) signaling pathway whose activation is required for the proliferation and sustainment of cells. The role of Cucurbitacin I in suppressing phosphotyrosine STAT3 in cancer cell lines and cancerous lung cells of humans has been reported ²⁴. Although Cucurbitacin B, E, and I act by inhibiting the activation of both JAK2 and STAT3, Cucurbitacin A and I acts by inhibition of only JAK2 and STAT3 respectively ²⁵. It has been reported that Cucurbitacin E inhibited tumor angiogenesis by inhibiting JAK-STAT3 and mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK)- signaling pathways ²⁶. The role of interference with actin cytoskeleton has been attributed to anti-proliferative effects of Cucurbitacin B and E. The anti-proliferative activities have been correlated directly with the disruption of the F-actin cytoskeleton ²⁷. It has been proposed that the combination of Cucurbitacin B with docetaxel may augment the chemotherapeutic effects by suppression STAT3 in patients with laryngeal cancer ²⁸. It is expected that cucumber fruits have anti-tumor effects since they have been reported to contain Cucurbitacin C ²⁹. It has been reported that cucurbitacin B exerts an anticancer effect by inhibiting telomerase via down-regulating both the human telomerase reverse transcriptase and c-Myc expression in breast cancer cells ³⁰.

Anti-artherosclerotic activity

There have been reports on Cucurbitacin B and E in glycosidic form to exhibit inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation products like- malonaldehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal ³¹. These reports bolster the therapeutic role of Cucurbitacins in artherosclerosis, which involves modification of lipoproteins by involvement of- malonaldehyde and 4-4-hydroxynonenal ³².

Antidiabetic activity

There have been a plethora of reports on the role of Cucurbitacins for their cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, cardiovascular, and antidiabetic effects ³³. Cucurbitane triterpenoids present in momordica fruits (bitter melon) are noted for antidiabetic and anticancer activities, this may provide leads as a class of therapeutics for diabetes and obesity ³⁴. The 5’-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway is suggested as a probable mechanism for the stimulation of GLUT4 translocation by triterpenoids from M. charantia. It is particularly interesting in relation to diabetes and obesity because activation of AMPK increases fatty acid oxidation, inhibits lipid synthesis, and can improve insulin action ³⁵. An analogue of 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin F from Hintonia latiflora has been reported to possess significant hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effects. The probable mechanism underlying– antihyperglycemic effect could be stimulation of insulin release and regulation of hepatic glycogen metabolism ³⁶.

Free Radical Scavenging and Analgesic Activities

The aqueous fruit extract of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) was screened for free radical scavenging and analgesic activities. The cucumber extract was subjected to in vitro antioxidant studies at 250 and 500 μg/ml and analgesic study at the doses 250 and 500 mg/kg, respectively ³⁷. The free radical scavenging was compared with ascorbic acid, BHA (Butylated hydroxyl anisole), whereas, the analgesic effect was compared with Diclofenac sodium (50 mg/kg). The cucumber fruit extract showed maximum antioxidant and analgesic effect at 500 μg/ml and 500 mg/kg, respectively ³⁷. The presence of flavonoids and tannins in the extract as evidenced by preliminary phytochemical screening suggests that these compounds might be responsible for free radical scavenging and analgesic effects ³⁷.

Anti-encephalitogenic effects

Cucumber leaf extract was characterized by the predominance of triterpenoids cucurbitacins and significant levels of phenolics. Effects of cucumber leaf extract on CD4+ T helper cells and macrophages, as the major encephalitogenic (tending to cause encephalitis) cells in the autoimmunity of the central nervous system were investigated in this study ³⁸. Cucumber leaf extract potently inhibited production of major pathogenic CD4+ T helper cells cytokines: interferon-gamma and interleukin-17, as well as of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species in macrophages ³⁸. Antigen-presenting activity of macrophages and dendritic cells was also affected by cucumber leaf extract ³⁸. The effects of cucumber leaf extract were co-incident with modulation of NFκB and p38 mitogen associated protein kinase signaling. Concentrations of cucumber leaf extract used in vitro did not show toxic effects on zebrafish embryos. Moreover, cucumber leaf extract inhibited generation of encephalitogenic cells in animal study. These results demonstrate that cucumber leaf extract deserve further investigation on its anti-encephalitogenic therapeutic properties ³⁸.

Ulcerative colitis in laboratory animals

In acetic acid induced ulcerative colitis in wistar rats study ³⁹ showed pretreatment with cucumber aqueous extract for 7 days exhibited significant effect in lowering of ulcer area, ulcer index as well as neutrophil infiltration at a dose of 250 and 500 mg/kg in acetic acid induced colitis ³⁹. That animal study demonstrated cucumber aqueous extract is of potent therapeutic value in the amelioration of experimental colitis in laboratory animals by inhibiting the inflammatory mediator. However more test tube and animal studies are needed to identify the bioactive compounds.

Miscellaneous activity

It has been reported that the concentration of Cucurbitacin C in the leaves is an important parameter in spider mite resistance in cucumber, perhaps by acting as an antagonist of a spider mite ecdysteroid receptor ⁴⁰. The steroid like resemblance of Cucurbitacin D may possess therapeutic effects via inhibition of Na+/K+-ATPase ⁴¹. The role of Cucurbitacins as preventive and radical scavenging antioxidant has also been reported ⁴². Cucurbitacins have also been reported to possess adaptogenic activity. Cucurbitacins have been reported to increase the rat capillary permeability and to demonstrate antifertility effects in female mice ⁴³. Cucurbitacin D has been reported to inhibit ovulation in mice. There has been protective role of Cucurbitacins acting as allomones in many plant species. Role of Cucurbitacins as anti-feedants for few insects, birds and as kairomones (Cucurbitacin B, E, D, I and L) for diabroticite beetles have been reported ⁴⁴. It is reported that Cucurbitacins act via Cuc receptors located on the maxillary palpi. They arrest the searching behavior of diabroticite beetles and produce a compulsive feeding behavior ⁴⁵. Role of Cucurbitacin B and D in controlling diabrotic beetles can be an interesting approach ⁴⁶.

Cucurbitacins Toxicity Reports

Cucurbitacins have been reported as highly toxic compounds and instances of severe poisoning and death in sheep and cattle that consumed bitter fruits of Cucumis and Cucurbita are well documented ⁴⁷. The range of toxicity of Cucurbitacins based on few in-vivo toxicity reports, has been found to be between 2 -12.5 mg/kg. Although a report on toxicity of Cucurbitacin R at level as high as 375 mg/Kg p.o and 67 mg/kg i.p is available.[65] The presence of a double bond at C-23 and acetyl group at C-25 have been found to augment the toxicity of Cucurbitacins.[66] Cucurbitacin’s strong biological activity was found to be very close to their toxic dose, which renders them unlikely to be biological agents.[48] The extreme bitterness of Cucurbitacins should deter humans from being exposed to substantial quantities of the compounds. Nevertheless, some poisonings have been reported after consumption of Cucurbitaceous food plants.[8] Cucurbitacins are found to be fatal when fruits of Luffa cylindrical (L.) were consumed.[67] Gastrointestinal symptoms have also been reported in a Japanese population consuming the bottle gourd, which contained Cucurbitacin D.[68] The toxicity of Cucurbitacins C, D, E, and I have been assessed and these compounds ascertained to be lethal. Plants with Cucurbitacins C, D, E and I must be avoided as their consumption can lead to illness or even death.[17] The appearance of toxic symptoms varies with the animal species used in the experiment, the route of administration of the compound, and the quantity that has been administered.[42]

Summary of Cucurbitacins

Although Cucurbitacins are highly toxic compounds and often their biological activities are close to their toxic dose level, these compounds possess immense pharmacological potential ⁴⁸. Apart from their toxic nature cucurbitacins have been proved to possess pharmacological effectiveness against inflammation, cancer, artherosclerosis and diabetes ⁴⁸. The reports on their toxicity must not overshadow the potential use of these compounds as potent medicinal agents. The chemical modification of various functional groups of these compounds to reduce toxic effects may provide important lead compounds for future research. Various Cucurbitacin analogues have been explored and are well established for toxic nature and their effectiveness against tumor cell lines. In modern drug discovery from medicinal plants, the importance of Cucurbitaceae species has been markedly recognized in empirical control of diabetes ⁴⁸. The information on absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of these compounds is scarce and can be an area of exploration keeping in concern their toxic effects in mammals ⁴⁸.

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Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Is cottage cheese good for you?

by Health Jade Team on May 20, 2018

What is cottage cheese

Cottage cheese is believed to have originated because the simple cheese was usually made in cottages from any milk left over after making butter dating back to 1831. Cottage cheese is drained, but not pressed, so some whey remains and the individual curds remain loose. The curd is usually washed to remove acidity, giving sweet-curd cheese. Cottage cheese is not aged or colored. Different styles of cottage cheese are made from milk with different fat levels and in small-curd or large-curd preparations. Pressed cottage cheese becomes hoop cheese, farmer cheese, pot cheese, or queso blanco. The two major types of cottage cheese are small-curd, high-acid cheese made without rennet, and large-curd, low-acid cheese made with rennet. Rennet is a natural complex of enzymes that speeds curdling and keeps the curd that forms from breaking up. Adding rennet shortens the cheese-making process, resulting in a lower acid and larger curd cheese, and reduces the amount of curd poured off with leftover liquid (whey). Sometimes large-curd cottage cheese is called “chunk style.”

Cottage cheese is popular among dieters and some health food devotees. It is a favorite food among bodybuilders, runners, swimmers and weightlifters for its high content of casein protein (a longer-lasting protein) while being relatively low in fat.

Cheeses that are safe to eat in pregnancy

All hard cheeses are safe in pregnancy

You can eat hard cheeses, such as cheddar, parmesan and stilton, even if they’re made with unpasteurized milk. Hard cheeses don’t contain as much water as soft cheeses, so bacteria are less likely to grow in them ¹. It’s possible for hard cheese to contain listeria, but the risk is considered to be low ². Although it’s possible for hard cheeses to contain listeria bacteria, they’re in such low numbers (less than one bacterium per gram of cheese) that they’re not considered to be a health risk to you or your unborn baby. Listeria bacteria can cause an infection called listeriosis.

Hard cheeses are safe to eat during pregnancy, even if they’re made with unpasteurized milk. These include:

cheddar
edam
emmental
gouda
gruyère
jarlsberg
parmesan
stilton

Soft cheeses that are safe to eat in pregnancy

Other than mold-ripened soft cheeses, all other soft types of cheese are OK to eat, provided they’re made from pasteurized milk.

These include ¹:

cottage cheese
mozzarella
feta
cream cheese
paneer
ricotta
halloumi
goats’ cheese
processed cheeses, such as cheese spreads

Cooked soft cheeses that are safe to eat in pregnancy

Thorough cooking should kill any bacteria in cheese, so it should be safe to eat cooked mould-ripened soft cheese, such as brie, camembert and chèvre, and cooked soft blue cheese, such as roquefort or gorgonzola, or dishes that contain them.

It’s important to make sure the cheese is thoroughly COOKED until it’s steaming hot all the way through!

Cheeses to avoid in pregnancy

Pregnant women should avoid eating mold-ripened soft cheeses and soft blue-veined cheeses as they can contain higher levels of listeria. Examples of these cheeses include:

brie and blue brie
camembert
chèvre (a type of goats’ cheese). Chèvre is mold-ripened and has a white rind, similar to brie and camembert – you should AVOID all these mold-ripened soft cheeses in pregnancy. This is because soft cheese like this can contain bacteria called Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause listeriosis.
Danish blue
gorgonzola
roquefort

Soft cheeses with white rinds

Don’t eat mold-ripened soft cheese (cheeses with a white rind) such as brie and camembert. This includes mold-ripened soft goats’ cheese, such as chèvre. These cheeses are only safe to eat in pregnancy if they’ve been cooked ².

Soft blue cheeses

You should also avoid soft blue-veined cheeses such as danish blue, gorgonzola and roquefort. Soft blue cheeses are only safe to eat in pregnancy if they’ve been cooked ².

It’s advised pregnant women avoid some soft cheeses because they’re less acidic than hard cheeses and contain more moisture, which means they can be an ideal environment for harmful bacteria, such as listeria, to grow in.

Although infection with listeria (listeriosis) is rare, it’s important to take special precautions in pregnancy – even a mild form of the illness in a pregnant woman can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth or severe illness in a newborn baby.

Find out about the symptoms of listeria by reading our article on listeria infection. Listeriosis usually causes flu-like symptoms but can lead to serious problems such as miscarriage or stillbirth, or severe illness in a newborn baby. If you’re pregnant and showing signs of listeria infection, seek medical help straight away.

Cottage cheese nutrition

A 100g cottage cheese of 4% fat product has about 106 calories, 4.42 g fat (3 g saturated), 4.42 g carbohydrates, and 11.5 g protein. It also contains about 310 mg sodium, 88 mg calcium, and 22 mg cholesterol (see Table 1). 1 cup of cottage cheese (900 mg) each contain over 20% of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans’ recommendation for daily sodium intake ³.

Cottage cheese calories is 106 calories per 100 gram cottage cheese
Carbs in cottage cheese = 4.42 gram per 100 gram cottage cheese
Cottage cheese protein = 11.5 grams per 100 gram cottage cheese

Some manufacturers also produce low-fat (Table 2) and nonfat (Table 3) varieties. A fat-free kind of a similar serving size has 71 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated), 4.42 g carbohydrates, and 11.5 g protein.

Table 1. Cottage cheese nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	106
Protein	g	11.5
Total lipid (fat)	g	4.42
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	4.42
Fiber, total dietary	g	0
Sugars, total	g	3.54
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	88
Iron, Fe	mg	0
Potassium, K	mg	133
Sodium, Na	mg	310
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	177
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	3.1
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	1.33
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	22

Ingredients: CULTURED NONFAT MILK, MILK, CREAM, LESS THAN 2% OF: SALT, NONFAT MILK, MALTODEXTRIN, CITRIC ACID, CARRAGEENAN, MONO AND DIGLYCERIDES, LOCUST BEAN GUM, GUAR GUM, NATURAL FLAVORS, CARBON DIOXIDE (TO PRESERVE FRESHNESS), ENZYME.

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ⁴]

Table 2. Cottage cheese (Low Fat) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	76
Protein	g	8.47
Total lipid (fat)	g	2.12
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	6.78
Fiber, total dietary	g	0
Sugars, total	g	4.24
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	127
Iron, Fe	mg	0
Sodium, Na	mg	331
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	339
Vitamin D	IU	34
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	1.27
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	13

Ingredients: CULTURED PASTEURIZED GRADE A SKIM MILK, MILK AND CRAM, WHEY, CONTAINS LESS THAN 2% OF MODIFIED FOOD STARCH, SALT, CALCIUM PHOSPHATE, XANTHAN GUM, GUAR GUM NATURAL FLAVOR, VITAMIN A PALMATE, VITAMIN D3.

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ⁴]

Table 3. Cottage cheese (Fat Free) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	71
Protein	g	11.5
Total lipid (fat)	g	0
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	4.42
Fiber, total dietary	g	0
Sugars, total	g	3.54
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	88
Iron, Fe	mg	0
Sodium, Na	mg	398
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	177
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	4

Ingredients: CULTURED SKIM MILK, SKIM MILK, WHEY PROTEIN CONCENTRATE, CONTAINS 2% OR LESS OF SALT, GUAR GUM, MONO AND DIGLYCERIDES*, LOCUST BEAN GUM, XANTHAN GUM, NATURAL FLAVORS, ARTIFICIAL COLOR, POTASSIUM SORBATE AND CARBON DIOXIDE (PRESERVATIVES), CARRAGEENAN, POLYSORBATE 80, VITAMIN A PALMITATE, ENZYMES.

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ⁴]

Is cottage cheese healthy

Based on the most recent published evidence, April 2018 meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials using 25 prospective studies on dairy products, investigating the relationship between fermented foods and non-transmissible chronic diseases ⁵ found eating cottage has no health benefit. That review ⁵ included a range of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) as well as the meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials published by Benatar et al. ⁶ and de Goede et al. ⁷, and the systematic reviews of Turner et al. ⁸ and Labonté et al. ⁹. These studies investigated LDL “bad” cholesterol, HDL “good” cholesterol, fasting triglycerides, postprandial triglycerides, LDL particle size, apoB, non-HDL cholesterol, cholesterol ratios, inflammatory markers, insulin resistance, blood pressure, and vascular function. The strongest evidence for a beneficial effect was for yogurt on risk factors of type 2 diabetes ⁵. Although mechanisms explaining this association have not been validated, an increased bioavailability of insulinotropic amino acids and peptides as well as the bacterial biosynthesis of vitamins, in particular vitamin K2, might contribute to this beneficial effect ⁵. However, the heterogeneity in the design of the studies and the investigated foods impedes a definitive assessment of these associations.

Studies on Cardio-Metabolic Diseases

Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁰ conducted a comprehensive review of the impact of dairy foods, in particular, of dairy fat, on cardio-metabolic risk. Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁰ focused their analysis on the potentially detrimental effect of dairy fat on cardio-metabolic risk factors by concluding that there is no apparent risk of potential harmful effects of dairy consumption on a large set of cardio-metabolic variables. Among the products investigated, total dairy, milk, cheese, and yoghurt were discussed, providing additional information on the impact of fermented dairy products on cardio-metabolic health. The authors highlighted that the cholesterol-raising effects of saturated fatty acids are attenuated when provided in complex foods, such as milk, cheese, or yoghurt. Dairy food consumption has neither an impact on low-grade systemic inflammation, nor on insulin resistance or glucose and insulin homeostasis in the short term but may be beneficial in the long term. Furthermore, data from randomized controlled trials that have evaluated the impact of dairy consumption on either blood pressure or vascular function are very consistent in showing mostly no effect.

In summary, an overview of the randomized controlled trials available on the impact of fermented dairy products on cardio-metabolic factors indicate that these products do not differentiate themselves from milk or total dairy in that their impact can be characterized as neutral.

Cardiovascular Diseases

Five meta-analyses have investigated the association between dairy product intake and cardiovascular disease risk in the last five years ¹¹, ¹², ¹³, ¹⁴, ¹⁵.

The meta-analysis by Qin et al. ¹⁴ indicated that total dairy, but not yogurt, may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease. Alexander et al. ¹¹ indicated that total dairy, milk, yogurt and cheese are not associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Moderate evidence that higher intake of cheese is associated with a weak reduction of risk of cardiovascular disease was reported by Chen et al. ¹⁶. Moderate evidence for a weak reduction of risk of cardiovascular disease for fermented dairy, but not for dairy, milk, cheese, or yogurt was reported by Guo et al. ¹². The same authors also reported moderate evidence for a weak reduction of risk of mortality for fermented dairy, but not for dairy, milk, cheese, or yogurt ¹². Finally, the meta-analysis by O’Sullivan et al. ¹³ indicated moderate evidence that total dairy, milk and cheese do not modify the risk of cardiovascular disease mortality.

In their systematic review, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ concluded that the association between the consumption of fermented dairy and cardiovascular disease risk is based on very low-quality evidence and thus remains uncertain at this point.

Taken together, none of the meta-analyses reported a detrimental effect of dairy products, including all fermented dairy products investigated. A neutral effect of yogurt was demonstrated in all four meta-analyses in which this product was investigated, whereas one out of five meta-analyses reported a beneficial effect of cheese consumption. On the other hand, the data from two meta-analyses on fermented dairy provided evidence for a beneficial effect of this product category. In conclusion, these meta-analyses provide weak evidence that fermented foods may have a beneficial effect on cardiovascular disease, although the data remain weak and inconsistent.

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)/Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

Four meta-analyses have investigated the association between dairy products and Coronary Heart Disease/Coronary Artery Disease risk in the last five years ¹⁶, ¹¹, ¹², ¹⁴. Moderate evidence that higher intake of cheese is associated with a moderately reduced risk of Coronary Heart Disease was reported by Chen et al. ¹⁶. No evidence for a reduction of risk of Coronary Heart Disease was found for dairy, milk, fermented dairy, cheese, or yogurt ¹². Moderate evidence suggesting that cheese consumption, in particular, at higher servings, but not total dairy, milk or yoghurt, may be associated with a moderate reduction of risk of Coronary Heart Disease was reported by Alexander et al. ¹¹. Finally, moderate evidence, reported by Qin et al. ¹⁴, suggests that cheese, but not total dairy or yogurt, may moderately decrease the risk of Coronary Heart Disease.

In their systematic review, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ concluded that there is moderate but consistent evidence for a neutral association between yogurt consumption and Coronary Artery Disease risk. The same authors also concluded that the association between the consumption of fermented dairy and the risk of Coronary Artery Disease remains uncertain because only evidence of insufficient quality is available.

Taken together, moderate evidence for a moderate reduction of risk of Coronary Heart Disease was associated with the consumption of cheese in three out of four meta-analyses, whereas the other analyses, including yogurt, milk and dairy, indicated a neutral effect.

Stroke

Four meta-analyses have investigated the association between dairy product consumption and stroke risk in the last five years ¹¹, ¹⁸, ¹⁹, ²⁰, ¹⁴. The analysis by Alexander et al. ¹¹ suggested that there is moderate evidence that cheese consumption, but not milk, may be associated with a moderate reduction in the risk of stroke, whereas total dairy consumption may be associated with a reduction in the risk of stroke. The analysis by de Goede et al. ¹⁸ indicated moderate evidence for a weak reduction in the risk of stroke with consumption of milk and >25 g/day cheese. Qin et al. ¹⁴ indicated that total dairy may decrease the risk of stroke and showed moderate evidence that cheese, but not yoghurt, may weakly decrease the risk of stroke. Also, Hu et al. ²⁰ showed moderate evidence that total dairy, including fermented milk, but not milk or non-fermented milk, may moderately decrease the risk of stroke. Finally, the study by Hu et al. ²⁰ suggested that there is moderate evidence that cheese intake may weakly decrease the risk of stroke.

In their systematic review, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ suggested that there is moderate-quality evidence that the consumption of fermented dairy is associated with a reduced risk of stroke (see Table 4). They further concluded that the available meta-analysis on yogurt has a relatively good quality score, further suggesting that yogurt consumption is not associated with the risk of stroke; this was based on moderate-quality evidence.

Taken together, none of the dairy products, including fermented dairy products, are associated with a detrimental effect on stroke. Moderate evidence for a weak to moderate effect of fermented dairy products, in particular, cheese, is indicated by these meta-analyses, although these effects are inconsistently associated with the fermentation process—yogurt was found to have a neutral effect when investigated in the product-specific study.

Hypertension

Two meta-analyses have investigated the association between dairy products and hypertension risk in the last five years ²¹, ²². In addition, one meta-analysis, integrating 15 randomized controlled trials evaluating the impact of fermented dairy products on hypertension, was published by Usinger et al. ²³.

The study by Soedamah-Muthu et al. ²² suggested that total dairy and milk, but not yogurt, total fermented dairy or cheese may moderately contribute to the prevention of hypertension. Also, the report by Ralston et al. ²¹ provided moderate evidence for a moderate effect of fluid dairy foods (including milk and yoghurt), but not cheese, on blood pressure in subjects with elevated blood pressure.

In the Cochrane review of randomized controlled trials on the impact of fermented milk on hypertension, Usinger et al. ²³ suggested a modest overall effect of fermented milk on blood pressure. However, the evidence was evaluated as weak, in light of the fact that an effect of fermented milk was found on systolic blood pressure (BP), but not on diastolic blood pressure.

The included studies were of variable quality as well as heterogeneous, and the findings do not support the use of fermented milk as an anti-hypertensive treatment or as a lifestyle intervention to reduce blood pressure.

In their systematic review, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ concluded that there is no significant association between the consumption of fermented dairy and the risk of hypertension. Of note, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ commented on an additional published study on this topic ²⁴, which reported an inverse association between the consumption of fermented dairy and the risk of hypertension. This study has an important weighting (n = 2340) relative to data from the meta-analysis by Soedamah-Muthu et al. ²² (n = 7641) and is likely to modify pooled risk estimates. In this context, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ suggested that moderate-quality evidence supports a neutral association between the consumption of fermented dairy and the risk of hypertension, with the need for further studies on the topic to yield better quality evidence. Regarding yogurt and the risk of hypertension, moderate-quality evidence was suggested by Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ that yogurt consumption is not associated with the risk of hypertension (Table 4).

Taken together, none of the dairy products, including fermented dairy products, are associated with an increased risk of hypertension. Half of the studies reported weakly beneficial effects but the results are inconsistent.

Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attack)

No meta-analysis is available that summarizes studies characterizing the association of fermented dairy products and myocardial infarction (heart attack) risk.

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Five meta-analyses have investigated the associations between fermented dairy products and type 2 diabetes mellitus risk in the last five years ²⁵, ²⁶, ²⁷, ²⁸, ²⁹.

The meta-analysis by Gijsbers et al. ³⁰ provided moderate evidence that the intake of dairy foods, yogurt and fermented dairy, but not cheese or milk, moderately decreases type 2 diabetes mellitus risk. The study by Chen et al. ²⁵ showed moderate evidence that higher intake of yogurt is associated with a moderately-reduced risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, whereas total dairy is not appreciably associated with the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Aune et al. ²⁷ indicated that dairy products, but not milk, may be associated with a decrease in the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Also, moderate evidence suggested that yogurt at higher doses may moderately decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Finally, the same authors reported moderate evidence that cheese, but not cottage cheese, may weakly decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, as well as weak evidence that fermented milk may moderately decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus ⁵. The fourth meta-analysis by Gao et al. ²⁸ showed moderate evidence suggesting that the intake of dairy products, cheese and high doses of yogurt, but not milk or fermented dairy, moderately decrease type 2 diabetes mellitus risk. Finally, Tong et al. ²⁹ indicated that total dairy may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, whereas moderate evidence suggests that yogurt, but not whole milk, may moderately reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

In their systematic review, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ concluded that the consumption of fermented dairy does not appear to be associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. This statement was based on moderate-quality evidence, because the three meta-analyses available relied on almost the same pools of prospective cohort studies (see Table 4). On the other hand, the same authors concluded that the five meta-analyses regarding the association between yogurt intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus reported consistent results, suggesting that there is high-quality evidence that supports an inverse association between the intake of yogurt and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Taken together, these meta-analyses provide evidence for a positive impact of fermented dairy, in particular yogurt, on type 2 diabetes mellitus risk.

Table 4. Evaluation of the impact of dairy products on cardio-metabolic factors and diseases (intervention studies and prospective studies).

Total Dairy	Milk	Cheese	Yogurt
Prospective studies ¹⁷
CVD	Neutral	Uncertain	Neutral	Neutral
CAD/CHD	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral	Neutral
Stroke	Favorable	Neutral	Favorable	Neutral
Hypertension	Favorable	Favorable	Neutral	Neutral
MetS	Favorable	Favorable	Uncertain	Uncertain
T2DM	Favorable	Neutral	Favorable	Favorable
Interventional studies randomized controlled trials ¹⁰
LDL cholesterol	No effect	No effect	No effect	No effect
HDL cholesterol	No effect	Uncertain	Uncertain	No effect
Fasting TGs	No effect	Uncertain	No effect	No effect
Postprandial TGs	Undetermined	No effect	No effect	Undetermined
LDL size	Undetermined	No effect	Undetermined	Undetermined
apoB	Undetermined	No effect	No effect	Undetermined
Non-HDL cholesterol	Undetermined	Undetermined	Undetermined	Undetermined
Cholesterol ratios	Undetermined	No effect	No effect	Reduced
Inflammation	No effect	No effect	Undetermined	No effect
Insulin resistance	Uncertain	No effect	No effect	No effect
Blood pressure	No effect	No effect	Undetermined	No effect
Vascular function	No effect	No effect	Undetermined	No effect

Notes: apoB: apolipoprotein B; CAD: coronary artery disease; CHD: coronary heart disease; CVD: cardiovascular disease; HDL: high-density lipoprotein “good” cholesterol; LDL: low-density lipoprotein “bad” cholesterol; MetS: Metabolic Syndrome; T2DM: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus; TG: triglyceride.

[Source ⁵]

Metabolic Syndrome (Metabolic Syndrome X)

One meta-analysis has investigated the association between dairy products and metabolic syndrome risk in the last five years ³¹.

This meta-analysis indicated that dairy intake may be inversely associated with the incidence and prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Also, weak evidence from cross-sectional studies suggests that dairy, milk and cheese, but not yogurt, may moderately decrease the incidence of diabetes.

In their systematic review, Drouin-Chartier et al. ¹⁷ judged the quality of the evidence relating yogurt intake to the incidence of metabolic syndrome to be very low, and thus, the association remains uncertain.

Taken together, none of the dairy products, including fermented dairy products, are associated with an increased or a decreased risk of metabolic syndrome.

Obesity

One meta-analysis has investigated the association between dairy products and metabolic obesity risk in the last five years ³².

This meta-analysis ³² indicated, with weak to moderate evidence, that yogurt consumption weakly decreases weight gain, waist circumference, risk of being overweight, and risk of abdominal obesity. The study also provided moderate evidence that cheese consumption weakly increases weight gain. In addition, dairy was negatively associated with weight gain, waist circumference, risk of being overweight and risk of abdominal obesity. Finally, milk consumption was negatively associated with waist circumference.

Taken together, yogurt might be beneficial preventing obesity ³². However, no significant association for yogurt consumption was observed for most of the endpoints related to obesity when comparing the highest versus the lowest categories of consumption. Further, the overall interpretation of the results is limited by heterogeneous risk estimates. The level of evidence for impacts of fermented dairy products on obesity risk is limited, and further studies are needed.

Summary of Studies Involving Cardio-metabolic Diseases

Dairy food consumption has neither an impact on low-grade systemic inflammation, nor on insulin resistance or glucose and insulin homeostasis in the short term but may be beneficial in the long term. Furthermore, data from randomized controlled trials that have evaluated the impact of dairy consumption on either blood pressure or vascular function are very consistent in showing mostly no effect. The consumption of fermented foods in the context of particular indications, such as yogurt intake and diabetes or cheese intake and stroke, can only be recommended on the basis of weak and inconsistent evidence ⁵.

Studies on Cancer

Two meta-analyses from the last five years investigated the association between dairy products and colorectal cancer risk ³³, ³⁴. The first meta-analysis showed that milk and total dairy products are associated with a significant reduction in colon cancer risk, whereas cheese, yoghurt, fermented milk and fermented dairy have neutral effects ³³. Ralston et al. ³⁴ later confirmed these findings by reporting a significant inverse association between the consumption of non-fermented dairy products and the risk of colorectal cancer, but no association between the consumption of fermented milk and cheese and colorectal cancer risk.

There is no evidence for a beneficial or detrimental effect of fermented dairy products on colorectal cancer. The potential beneficial effects of dairy products regarding colorectal cancer are thus unlikely to be attributed to the fermentation process.

One meta-analysis investigated the association between dairy products and pancreatic cancer risk that was published in the last five years ³⁵. Intakes of cheese, cottage cheese, yogurt, as well as milk, were not associated with pancreatic cancer risk. There is no evidence for a beneficial or detrimental effect of fermented dairy products on pancreatic cancer.

Two meta-analyses investigated the association between dairy products and gastric cancer risk ³⁶, ³⁷. None of these analyses demonstrated a significant association between the intake of cheese and yoghurt, and gastric cancer risk. Of note, the results of cohort studies, but not case-control studies, suggested that total dairy intake might be related to the reduction of gastric cancer risk ³⁸, whereas the results of case-control studies, but not cohort studies, provided weak evidence for an increased risk ³⁶.

There is no evidence for a beneficial or detrimental effect of fermented dairy products on gastric cancer. The potential effects of dairy products on gastric cancer are thus unlikely to be attributed to the fermentation process.

One meta-analysis from the last five years, summarizing 19 cohort and case-control studies, investigated the associations between fermented dairy products and ovarian cancer risk ³⁹. This study concluded that milk and yoghurt intake has no association with an increased risk of ovarian cancer. There is no evidence for a beneficial or detrimental effect of fermented dairy products on ovarian cancer.

One meta-analysis from the last five years has summarized cohort and case-control studies in order to investigate the associations between fermented dairy products and lung cancer risk ⁴⁰. Weak evidence from two cohort studies was available for a protective effect of cheese, but this effect was not found in the overall analysis of all studies that included eight case-control studies. In addition, no effects were observed for dairy, milk and yogurt. Taken together, there is no evidence for a beneficial or detrimental effect of fermented dairy products on lung cancer.

No meta-analysis is available that summarizes the impact of dairy products or fermented dairy products on other types of cancer. Also, to our knowledge, no individual study has been published focusing on the effects of fermented dairy product intake on additional types of cancer whose results would justify a critical appraisal in this report.

Summary of Studies Involving Cancer

In their review, Thorning et al. ⁴¹ concluded that, according to the World Cancer Research Fund reports and the latest meta-analyses, (i) consumption of milk and dairy products probably protects against colorectal, bladder, gastric and breast cancers, (ii) dairy intake does not seem to be associated with risk of pancreatic, ovarian or lung cancer; and (iii) the evidence for prostate cancer risk is inconsistent.

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Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Is almond butter healthy?

by Health Jade Team on May 16, 2018

What is almond butter

Almond butter is a food paste made from almonds. Almond butter may be crunchy or smooth, and is generally “stir” (susceptible to oil separation) or “no-stir” (emulsified). Almond butter may be either raw or roasted, describing the almonds themselves prior to grinding. It is recommended that almond butter be refrigerated once opened to prevent spoilage and oil separation. Generally, nut/seed butters contain generous amounts of phytochemicals that may be protective against colon, prostate, and breast cancer ¹. According to Jiang et al. ², the relative risk of developing diabetes was reduced 27% in those who ate nuts five or more times per week compared with those who rarely or never ate nuts. Nutritional property of some of the nut/seed butter is presented in Table 6. Raw nuts have primarily 1 of the 2 unsaturated types (except coconut and palm kernels), thus leads healthful source of fatty acids for the production of lower cholesterol level foods. At present different plant based butters/spreads are available in the market. For example peanut butter, almond butter, cashew butter, pumpkin seed butter, pistachio butter, soy butter, sunflower and sesame butter. The term plant based (Nut/Seed) butter refers to a product that contains at least 90 % nut/seed ingredients whereas, the spread refers to a spreadable product having at least 40 % nut ingredients which can be added in various forms, e.g. as nuts, a paste and/or a slurry ³.

The dairy butter is a water-in-oil emulsion, i.e. >80 % fat with tiny water droplets, perhaps some solids-not-fat and with/without salt ⁴ (see Table 5 below). However, animal foods such as butter are rich in saturated fat. Butter with and without salt contains 55 ± 2 g/100 g of saturated fat and 222 ± 2 mg/100 g cholesterol ⁵.

Due to the mounting health concerns regarding the consumption of dairy butter because of its high saturated fat content has raised the need to search for an alternative plant based butters viz., nut butters and seed butters. Nuts and seeds are nutrient dense foods and have been a regular constituent of mankind’s diet since pre-agricultural times ⁶. Nuts and seeds are generally consumed as snack food in roasted form as they are of good taste, handy and easy to eat. But, recently with the advent of new technologies, myriad varieties of nut and seed based snacks and processed products have arrived in the market out of which the form of butter gained more popularity.

Evidence suggests that nut consumption, including peanuts, protects against not only coronary heart disease (coronary artery disease) but also against diabetes and the coronary heart disease (coronary artery disease) associated with diabetes, and other metabolic syndrome diseases, notably gallstone disease ⁷. In one of the largest studies to date about the health benefits of nuts, researchers analyzed data from more than 210,000 health professionals over as many as 32 years. They found that, compared with those who never or almost never ate nuts, people who ate one ounce of nuts five or more times per week had a 14% lower risk of cardiovascular disease and a 20% lower risk of coronary heart disease during the study period. Both walnuts and peanuts were linked with lower disease risk, the study found. No heart benefits were associated with eating peanut butter—which could be because people tend to pair peanut butter with unhealthy foods or because peanut butter is often mixed with salt and sweeteners, possibly canceling out the positive health benefits of the peanuts, according to an editorial accompanying the study.

The form of butter is one of the healthy way of integrating nuts and seeds into your regular diet. Nut and seed butters are generally prepared by roasting, grinding and refrigerated to consume it when it is still fresh. During this process it is imperative to retain the nutritional properties of these nuts and seeds in order to reap the benefits of the fresh nuts and seeds in the form of butter as well. Proper care is needed to minimize the conversion of healthful components in to unhealthy components during processing and further storage. Roasting temperature, temperatures during grinding and storage are the vital factors to be considered in order to have healthy and nutritious plant based butters.

The type of nuts you choose to eat probably doesn’t matter much. Most nuts appear to be generally healthy, though some may have more heart-healthy nutrients than others. For example, walnuts contain high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids.

Almonds, macadamia nuts, hazelnuts and pecans are other nuts that appear to be quite heart healthy. And peanuts — which are technically not a nut, but a legume, like beans — seem to be relatively healthy.

Keep in mind, you could end up canceling out the heart-healthy benefits of nuts if they’re covered with chocolate, sugar or salt.

What’s in nuts that might make them heart healthy?

Besides being packed with protein, most nuts contain at least some of these heart-healthy substances:

Unsaturated fats. It’s not entirely clear why, but it’s thought that the “good” fats in nuts — both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats — lower bad cholesterol levels.
Omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are found in many kinds of fish, but many nuts are also rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3s are a healthy form of fatty acids that seem to help your heart by, among other things, preventing dangerous heart rhythms that can lead to heart attacks.
Fiber. All nuts contain fiber, which helps lower your cholesterol. Fiber makes you feel full, so you eat less. Fiber is also thought to play a role in preventing type 2 diabetes.
Vitamin E. Vitamin E may help stop the development of plaques in your arteries, which can narrow them. Plaque development in your arteries can lead to chest pain, coronary artery disease or a heart attack.
Plant sterols. Some nuts contain plant sterols, a substance that can help lower your cholesterol. Plant sterols are often added to products like margarine and orange juice for additional health benefits, but sterols occur naturally in nuts.
L-arginine. Nuts are also a source of l-arginine, which is a substance that may help improve the health of your artery walls by making them more flexible and less prone to blood clots that can block blood flow.

Figure 1. Almond butter

What is almond

The almond (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus) is a species of tree native to the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and North Africa ⁸. The almond fruit measures 3.5–6 cm (1–2 in) long. In botanical terms, almond fruit is not a nut but a drupe. The almond fruit drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut, inside. In botany, a drupe (stone fruits) is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp or skin; and mesocarp or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the pit or stone) of hardened endocarp with a seed (kernel) inside ⁹. The definitive characteristic of a drupe is that the hard, “lignified” stone (or pit) is derived from the ovary wall of the flower—in an aggregate fruit composed of small, individual drupes (such as a raspberry) (see Figure 1). Some flowering plants that produce drupes are coffee, jujube, mango, olive, most palms (including date, sabal, coconut and oil palms), pistachio, white sapote, cashew and all members of the genus Prunus, including the almond (in which the mesocarp is somewhat leathery), apricot, cherry, damson, nectarine, peach, and plum.

Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo.

Almond is naturally gluten free.

Figure 2. Drupe fruit diagram

Drupe_fruit_diagram

Figure 3. Almond fruit (raw) green

almond fruit - green

Figure 4. Almonds in tough outer shell

almonds in shell

Figure 5. Almonds raw and shelled

Almond-Nuts-Shelled-Raw

Figure 6. Almonds blanched

almonds blanched

Almond butter nutrition

Almond butter is high in monounsaturated fats, calcium, potassium, iron and manganese. Almond butter is considered a good source of riboflavin, phosphorus, and copper and an excellent source of vitamin E, magnesium, and fiber. Almond butter also provides dietary protein.

Almond butter is an alternative to peanut butter for those with peanut allergies or who dislike the taste of peanuts. Almond butter contains significantly more fiber, calcium, potassium, iron, and manganese than peanut butter and about half the saturated fat, although a slightly higher total fat content. Almonds are not legumes whereas peanuts are, so almond butter can be consumed by those looking to avoid legumes.

Plain raw almond butter calories without added salt is about 614 calories per 100 gram.

Carbs in almond butter is 18.82 gram per 100 gram.

Table 1. Almond butter (plain without added salt) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	1.64
Energy	kcal	614
Energy	kJ	2568
Protein	g	20.96
Total lipid (fat)	g	55.5
Ash	g	3.09
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	18.82
Fiber, total dietary	g	10.3
Sugars, total	g	4.43
Sucrose	g	4.34
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.02
Fructose	g	0
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0.07
Starch	g	0.08
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	347
Iron, Fe	mg	3.49
Magnesium, Mg	mg	279
Phosphorus, P	mg	508
Potassium, K	mg	748
Sodium, Na	mg	7
Zinc, Zn	mg	3.29
Copper, Cu	mg	0.934
Manganese, Mn	mg	2.131
Selenium, Se	µg	2.4
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.041
Riboflavin	mg	0.939
Niacin	mg	3.155
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.318
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.103
Folate, total	µg	53
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	53
Folate, DFE	µg	53
Choline, total	mg	52.1
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	1
Carotene, alpha	µg	0
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	1
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	1
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	24.21
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0.53
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	1.01
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	4.152
8:0	g	0
10:0	g	0
12:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.007
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	3.192
17:0	g	0.007
18:0	g	0.938
20:0	g	0.007
22:0	g	0
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	32.445
14:1	g	0
15:1	g	0
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.248
17:1	g	0.035
18:1 undifferentiated	g	32.143
20:1	g	0.019
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	13.613
18:2 undifferentiated	g	13.605
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.007
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Phytosterols	mg	139
Stigmasterol	mg	3
Campesterol	mg	6
Beta-sitosterol	mg	131
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.159
Threonine	g	0.555
Isoleucine	g	0.813
Leucine	g	1.483
Lysine	g	0.612
Methionine	g	0.122
Cystine	g	0.242
Phenylalanine	g	1.149
Tyrosine	g	0.595
Valine	g	0.937
Arginine	g	2.382
Histidine	g	0.55
Alanine	g	0.99
Aspartic acid	g	2.397
Glutamic acid	g	5.912
Glycine	g	1.472
Proline	g	0.915
Serine	g	0.926
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁰ ]

Table 2. Organic almond butter (raw) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	562
Protein	g	21.88
Total lipid (fat)	g	50
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	18.75
Fiber, total dietary	g	12.5
Sugars, total	g	6.25
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	250
Iron, Fe	mg	4.5
Sodium, Na	mg	0
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	3.12
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁰ ]

Table 3. Organic almond butter (raw and crunchy) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	562
Protein	g	21.88
Total lipid (fat)	g	50
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	18.75
Fiber, total dietary	g	12.5
Sugars, total	g	6.25
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	250
Iron, Fe	mg	4.5
Sodium, Na	mg	0
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	3.12
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁰ ]

Table 4. Organic almond butter (dry roasted unblanched) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	633
Protein	g	16.67
Total lipid (fat)	g	60
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	20
Fiber, total dietary	g	3.3
Sugars, total	g	6.67
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	267
Iron, Fe	mg	3.6
Potassium, K	mg	767
Sodium, Na	mg	0
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Folate, total	µg	53
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	5
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	33.33
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	13.33
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁰]

Table 5. Butter (plain without added salt) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	16.17
Energy	kcal	717
Energy	kJ	2999
Protein	g	0.85
Total lipid (fat)	g	81.11
Ash	g	0.09
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	0.06
Fiber, total dietary	g	0
Sugars, total	g	0.06
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	24
Iron, Fe	mg	0.02
Magnesium, Mg	mg	2
Phosphorus, P	mg	24
Potassium, K	mg	24
Sodium, Na	mg	11
Zinc, Zn	mg	0.09
Copper, Cu	mg	0.016
Manganese, Mn	mg	0.004
Selenium, Se	µg	1
Fluoride, F	µg	2.8
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.005
Riboflavin	mg	0.034
Niacin	mg	0.042
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.11
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.003
Folate, total	µg	3
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	3
Folate, DFE	µg	3
Choline, total	mg	18.8
Vitamin B-12	µg	0.17
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	684
Retinol	µg	671
Carotene, beta	µg	158
Carotene, alpha	µg	0
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	2499
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	0
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	2.32
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	0
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol)	µg	0
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	7
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	50.489
4:0	g	3.226
6:0	g	2.007
8:0	g	1.19
10:0	g	2.529
12:0	g	2.587
14:0	g	7.436
16:0	g	21.697
17:0	g	0.56
18:0	g	9.999
20:0	g	0.138
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	23.43
16:1 undifferentiated	g	1.82
16:1 c	g	0.961
18:1 undifferentiated	g	20.4
18:1 c	g	16.978
18:1 t	g	2.982
20:1	g	0.1
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	3.01
18:2 undifferentiated	g	1.83
18:2 n-6 c,c	g	2.166
18:2 CLAs	g	0.267
18:2 i	g	0.296
18:3 undifferentiated	g	1.18
18:3 n-3 c,c,c (ALA)	g	0.315
18:4	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	215
Stigmasterol	mg	0
Campesterol	mg	0
Beta-sitosterol	mg	4
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.012
Threonine	g	0.038
Isoleucine	g	0.051
Leucine	g	0.083
Lysine	g	0.067
Methionine	g	0.021
Cystine	g	0.008
Phenylalanine	g	0.041
Tyrosine	g	0.041
Valine	g	0.057
Arginine	g	0.031
Histidine	g	0.023
Alanine	g	0.029
Aspartic acid	g	0.064
Glutamic acid	g	0.178
Glycine	g	0.018
Proline	g	0.082
Serine	g	0.046
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁰ ]

Table 6. Nutritional property of nut and seed butter (1 Tbsp)

Product	Calorie	Protein	Fat	Calcium	Zinc
Product		(g)	(g)	(mg)	(mg)
Almond butter	101	2.4	9.5	43	0.5
Cashew butter	93	2.8	8.0	7	0.8
Hazelnut butter	94	2.0	9.5	–	–
Sunflower butter	80	3.0	7.0	–	–
Sesame butter	89	2.6	8.0	64	0.7
Peanut butter
natural	94	3.8	8.0	7	0.4
reduced fat	95	4.0	6.0	–	0.4
Soy butter
sweetened	85	4.0	5.5	50	–
unsweetened	80	4.0	6.5	30	–
Soy-peanut butter	50	2.0	1.2	40	–
sweetened	50	2.0	1.2	40	–

Footnote: 1 Tablespoon (Tbsp) = 14.19 g

[Source ¹¹ ]

Almond butter vs peanut butter

Almond butter has significantly more fiber, calcium, and potassium than sunflower seed or peanut butter ¹². Spiller et al. ¹³ compared the lipid-altering effect of roasted salted almonds and roasted almond butter with that of raw almonds, as part of a plant-based diet (Table 10). High-density lipoprotein “good” cholesterol (HDL) did not significantly change with raw or roasted almonds but slightly increased with almond butter. HDL cholesterol is the good cholesterol that cruises the bloodstream and high levels HDL reduces the risk for heart disease.

The findings of this study ¹⁴found that consumption of nuts and peanut butter was inversely associated with risk of type 2 diabetes, independent of known risk factors for type 2 diabetes, including age, obesity, family history of diabetes, physical activity, smoking, and dietary factors. Peanut butter (Arachis hypogaea) is creamy, composed of peanut paste and stabilizer. It may also contain sweetener, salt, emulsifier and other ingredients. Peanut butter is prepared by roasting, blanching, grinding and tempering. The formulation of a typical peanut butter is shown in Table 7. Good quality nuts and seed pods are sorted out and destoned before shelling. Shelled nuts are graded to ensure the sound or bold or even size nuts. Roasting is a dry heat treatment, carried out not so much for dehydration but for flavor, color and texture development ¹⁵. Roasting involves a number of physico-chemical changes including dehydration and chemical reactions. However, the development of flavor and aroma depends upon the temperature and time of roasting beside the type of nuts and techniques applied ¹⁶. Generally, for peanut butter, roasting is done at around 160 °C for 40–60 min depending upon the seed size and moisture contents ¹⁷. Roasting reduces water contents to around 1 % followed by the release of oil from the cytoplasm of the cells which increases the shelf life of peanuts and helps in developing flavor for peanut butter. Ogunsanwo et al. ¹⁸ reported that the peanut butter prepared by roasting at 160 °C for 30 min was found comparable with the commercial samples. Blanching of peanuts is done to remove the skin of the peanut. There are several blanching methods including dry, water, spin, and air impact. Dry blanching is used primarily in peanut butter production, as it removes the kernel hearts which affect peanut butter flavor. After removing the outer skin during blanching, nuts are ground into paste. Peanut butter is usually made by two stage grinding operations. First grinding reduces the nuts to a medium size and the second milling uses a very high-speed grinder cum mixer that has a combination of cutting-shearing and attrition action and reduces to a fine (less than 0.025 cm) smooth texture. Due to this several passes the paste is subjected to excessively high temperature, an elaborative cooling methods need to be utilized to retain desired flavors in the nut butter. Connick ¹⁹ states that accomplishing the grinding steps in the presence of solid carbon dioxide inhibits the dissolving, occlusion, and adsorption of free oxygen into the peanut butter and there by increases the shelf life as well as improves the flavor. Woodroof ²⁰ classified peanut butters into three types based on the texture viz., Smooth (even texture with no perceptible grainy peanut particles), Regular (definitely grainy texture with with perceptible peanut particles not more than 1/16 in. in diameter and Chunky (partially fine and partially grainy particles with substantial amounts larger than 1/16 in. in diameter). Crippen et al. ²¹ reported that increased grind size (fine, medium and course), decreased the sensory smoothness, spreadability, adhesiveness and preference ratings. According to Dzurik et al. ²² the high pressure homogenization after initial grinding produces a paste of smooth, glossy, melts more rapidly in the mouth than conventional peanut butter. During grinding, the ingredients like salt, sugar, stabilizers and emulsifiers are added. Addition of salt (< 1.2 %) increased the ease of swallowing, as well as consumer preference of texture. Before grinding of nut/seeds, carbohydrates, protein and other non-fat components will be in a continuous phase. Fat cells entrapped in non-fat components will be in a discontinuous phase. After grinding into paste, fat cells ruptured and become continuous and non-fat constituents form a discontinuous phase. Once the paste is formed, continuous phase (fat/ oil) will separate from the nonfat particles. Without stabilizers, paste settles at the bottom and forms a hard layer while the oil remains on top ²³. Thus, stabilizers in plant based butter prevent gravitational separation of less dense oil from solid particles during storage at ambient temperatures ²⁴. Galvez et al. ²⁵ reported that the peanut butter without stabilizer exhibited > 2 % oil separation after 12 weeks of storage. During conditioning to prevent oil separation, mixture is immediately chilled and the hydrogenated oil forms finely divided and sufficient amount of hard fat crystals. The amount and nature of the crystals determines the stability of the product. The rate of cooling determines the size of the crystals ²⁶. Woodroof ²⁷ has discussed the important considerations on type and amount of stabilizer with respect to the desired consistency and mouth feel of peanut butter, oil content and particle size. The temperature of paste during the addition of stabilizer should be more than the melting point of stabilizer to produce a more homogenized product. Thus, the recommended temperature for blending of stabilizers is 60–74 °C. Totlani and Chinnan ²⁸ reported that the addition of 1–2 % stabilizer was found to be adequate for peanut butter stored for 3 months at 35 °C. Aryana et al. ²⁹ and Gills and Resurreccion ³⁰ reported that the use of blended hydrogenated rapeseed and cottonseed oils as stabilizer in peanut butter was superior to palm oil. Addition of emulsifier in the peanut butter negates stickiness so that it will not stick to the roof of the mouth. Suitable emulsifiers include lecithin and fatty mono- and diglycerides, for example, soybean mono- and diglycerides ³¹. Different emulsifiers affirmed as GRAS are shown in Table 8. Furthermore, for improved stability, the peanut butter should be packed at the proper temperature and it should be tempered for a minimum of 24 h before shipping. This tempering allows time for additional crystal growth and formation of a good crystalline network ²⁶.

Table 7. Formulation of a typical peanut butter

Component	Percentage
Peanut paste (~1 % moisture)	90
Hydrogenated vegetable oil	1–5
Sweetener	1–6
Salt	1–1.5
Emulsifier	0.5–1.5

[Source ³² ]

Table 8. Some food emulsifiers affirmed as GRAS

Emulsifier	US FDA (21CFR)	EEC (E No.)
Diacetyl tartaric esters of monoglycerides (DATEM)	184.1101	E472e
Lecithin	184.1400	E322
Mono-and diglycerides	184.1505	E471
Monosodium phosphate derivatives of mono and diglycerides	184.1521	–

[Source ³³ ]

Table 9. Peanut butter (raw) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	6.5
Energy	kcal	567
Energy	kJ	2374
Protein	g	25.8
Total lipid (fat)	g	49.24
Ash	g	2.33
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	16.13
Fiber, total dietary	g	8.5
Sugars, total	g	4.72
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	92
Iron, Fe	mg	4.58
Magnesium, Mg	mg	168
Phosphorus, P	mg	376
Potassium, K	mg	705
Sodium, Na	mg	18
Zinc, Zn	mg	3.27
Copper, Cu	mg	1.144
Manganese, Mn	mg	1.934
Selenium, Se	µg	7.2
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.64
Riboflavin	mg	0.135
Niacin	mg	12.066
Pantothenic acid	mg	1.767
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.348
Folate, total	µg	240
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	240
Folate, DFE	µg	240
Choline, total	mg	52.5
Betaine	mg	0.6
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	0
Carotene, alpha	µg	0
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	0
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	8.33
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	6.279
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
08:00:00	g	0
10:00:00	g	0
12:00:00	g	0
14:00:00	g	0.025
16:00:00	g	5.154
18:00:00	g	1.1
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	24.426
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.009
18:1 undifferentiated	g	23.756
20:01:00	g	0.661
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	15.558
18:2 undifferentiated	g	15.555
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.003
18:04:00	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.25
Threonine	g	0.883
Isoleucine	g	0.907
Leucine	g	1.672
Lysine	g	0.926
Methionine	g	0.317
Cystine	g	0.331
Phenylalanine	g	1.377
Tyrosine	g	1.049
Valine	g	1.082
Arginine	g	3.085
Histidine	g	0.652
Alanine	g	1.025
Aspartic acid	g	3.146
Glutamic acid	g	5.39
Glycine	g	1.554
Proline	g	1.138
Serine	g	1.271
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0
Isoflavones
Daidzein	mg	0.02
Genistein	mg	0.24
Total isoflavones	mg	0.26
Biochanin A	mg	0.01
Formononetin	mg	0
Coumestrol	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers	mg	33.2
Proanthocyanidin trimers	mg	48.8
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers	mg	48.1
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers)	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁰]

Is almond butter good for you?

The answer to that question is yes. Almond consumption has been shown to reduce LDL “bad” cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations and increase HDL “good” cholesterol (HDL-C) concentrations in hyperlipidaemic individuals ³⁴. Although almonds contain a variety of constituents that may exert cardioprotective effects through various mechanisms ³⁵, their ability to improve blood lipid profiles and reduce coronary heart disease risk may primarily be related to their healthy fatty acid profile, which is low in saturated fats and high in monounsaturated fats (MUFA) ³⁶, particularly oleic acid ³⁷. Epidemiological studies suggest that diets with a high proportion of monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) in the form of oleic acid, such as the Mediterranean diet, reduce coronary heart disease risk ³⁸. However, the effect of almond consumption on the serum fatty acid profile and its association with coronary heart disease risk have not been investigated.

Almond butter benefits

The results of this study ³⁹ indicate that almond consumption favourably alters the serum fatty acid profile by increasing the proportions of oleic acid and total monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and decreasing those of saturated fatty acid. These changes in the fatty acid profile are correlated with improvements in blood lipoproteins and with a decreased 10-year coronary heart disease risk. The mechanism by which almonds modify coronary heart disease risk is unclear, it has been proposed that almonds may exert an effect exogenously and endogenously. It has been proposed that dietary incorporation of almonds exogenously reduces serum cholesterol concentrations by replacing saturated fats with monounsaturated fats in the diet. In a randomized, controlled, parallel study, the saturated fats concentrations of thirty-eight hypercholesterolemic adults who consumed 100 g of raw almonds daily over a 4-week period were found to be lower ⁴⁰. Furthermore, increasing monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) intake has been reported to be associated with an increase in HDL “good” cholesterol concentrations, as demonstrated by a randomized, controlled trial of twenty-four hypercholesterolaemic adults ⁴¹. The improvement in blood lipid profiles has generally been associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease. It has also been proposed that almonds may act endogenously to exert a cardioprotective effect. Dietary fatty acid are rapidly incorporated into lipoprotein lipids. Enrichment of lipoprotein particles with monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) at the expense of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) may enhance their resistance to oxidative stress as there are few double bonds to react with, thus potentiating the anti-atherogenic effect ⁴². Moreover, there may be other bioactive components in almonds that further reduce coronary heart disease risk. In addition to unsaturated fatty acids, almonds are a good source of vitamin E, fiber and phytochemicals (phenols, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins and phytosterols), arginine, Cu and Mg, which may beneficially influence coronary artery disease risk ⁴³. Many of these nutrients may act synergistically to produce the observed favourable outcomes, although further studies are required to prove this postulation ⁴⁴. Further analysis of LDL particle size may provide a better understanding of potential mechanisms by which almonds and other foods rich in monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) influence triglyceride concentrations.

Almonds have potential health benefits and reduce risk factors associated with type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer and obesity ⁴⁵. Previous studies have established that almond cell walls play a crucial role in regulating nutrient bioaccessibility in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) ⁴⁶. The term ‘bioaccessibility’ is defined as the proportion of a nutrient or phytochemical compound ‘released’ from a complex food matrix during digestion and, therefore, potentially available for absorption in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Using a in test tube and an animal study, scientists have recently demonstrated that test meals containing almonds of different particle sizes behaved differently: the degree of lipid encapsulation affected the rate and extent of bioaccessibility in the upper GIT ⁴⁷. Scientists have also demonstrated that mastication of natural raw almonds released only a small proportion (7.9%) of the total lipid and was only slightly higher for roasted almonds (11.1%) ⁴⁸. The lipid release from masticated almonds was in close agreement with that predicted by a theoretical model for almond lipid bioaccessibility ⁴⁹. Using a test tube model of duodenal digestion ⁵⁰, it was observed that a decrease in almond particle size resulted in an increased rate and extent of lipolysis.

Novotny et al. ⁵¹ conducted a feeding study in healthy adults to determine the energy value of almonds as a representative food from a group for which the Atwater factors may overestimate the energy value. They showed that only 76% of the energy contained within almonds (based on the Atwater factors) was actually metabolised ⁵¹. Furthermore, when calculating the metabolisable energy of whole natural almonds, whole roasted almonds, chopped almonds and almond butter, it was demonstrated that the number of calories absorbed was dependent on the form in which almonds were consumed.

It is known that processing of nuts, such as roasting, chopping and grinding, impacts mastication, particle size and lipid bioaccessibility ⁴⁸. The decrease in size of almond particles, with consequent reduction of intact cell walls, determines the rate and extent of lipid bioaccessibility during digestion. It is interesting to note that there was limited lipid digestibility for natural raw almonds and roasted almonds during mastication. In almond butter from roasted almonds, all the intracellular lipids made available by cell-wall rupture, as well as the lipid molecules present at the interface and within the continuous lipid phase are readily available for absorption. The exposure of the remaining intact almond particles to mastication resulted in a further small release of lipid. Cassady et al. ⁵² reported important differences in appetitive and hormone responses after mastication of almonds. Gebauer et al. ⁵³ have recently reported that the number of calories absorbed from almonds in the gastrointestinal tract is strictly dependent on the form in which they are consumed. As a result of incomplete macronutrient loss in the upper gastrointestinal tract, it is believed that a large proportion of nutrients from almonds reaches the large bowel, where it is fermented by the microbiota ⁴⁶. Incomplete rupturing of the cell walls during mastication results in macronutrient encapsulation, which remain inaccessible to digestive enzymes and, if not fermented in the colon, are excreted in feces.

Table 10. Composition of raw and processed almonds per 100g edible portion

	Raw Almonds	Roasted Almonds	Almond Butter
Water (g)	4.2	1.3	2.1
Protein (g)	25.3	25.4	24.6
Total lipid (g)	49.5	52.5	55.7
MUFA (g)	30.7	32.1	32.7
PUFA (g)	10.6	11.4	13.8
SFA (g)	3.5	3.7	3.9
Carbohydrate (g)	17.9	18.5	14.5
Dietary fiber (g)	13.9	11.8	10.5
Vitamin E (mg ATE)	25.3	25.5	23.6
Phytosterols (mg)	113.6	125.8	145.1
Sodium (mg)	<10	209	<10

[Source ¹³ ]

Unsaturated fats

Unsaturated fats, which are liquid at room temperature, are considered beneficial fats because they can improve blood cholesterol levels, ease inflammation, stabilize heart rhythms, and play a number of other beneficial roles. Unsaturated fats are predominantly found in foods from plants, such as vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds.

There are two types of “good” unsaturated fats:

1. Monounsaturated fats are found in high concentrations in:

Nuts such as almonds, hazelnuts, and pecans
Seeds such as pumpkin and sesame seeds
Olive, peanut, and canola oils
Avocados

2. Polyunsaturated fats are found in high concentrations in:

Sunflower, corn, soybean, and flaxseed oils
Walnuts
Flax seeds
Fish
Canola oil – though higher in monounsaturated fat, it’s also a good source of polyunsaturated fat.

Omega-3 fats are an important type of polyunsaturated fat. The body can’t make these, so they must come from food.

An excellent way to get omega-3 fats is by eating fish 2-3 times a week.

Good plant sources of omega-3 fats include flax seeds, walnuts, and canola or soybean oil.

Higher blood omega-3 fats are associated with lower risk of premature death among older adults, according to a study ⁵⁴.

Most people don’t eat enough healthful unsaturated fats. The American Heart Association suggests that 8-10 percent of daily calories should come from polyunsaturated fats, and there is evidence that eating more polyunsaturated fat—up to 15 percent of daily calories—in place of saturated fat can lower heart disease risk ⁵⁴.

Dutch researchers conducted an analysis of 60 trials that examined the effects of carbohydrates and various fats on blood lipid levels. In trials in which polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats were eaten in place of carbohydrates, these good fats decreased levels of harmful LDL and increased protective HDL ⁵⁵.

More recently, a randomized trial known as the Optimal Macronutrient Intake Trial for Heart Health (OmniHeart) showed that replacing a carbohydrate-rich diet with one rich in unsaturated fat, predominantly monounsaturated fats, lowers blood pressure, improves lipid levels, and reduces the estimated cardiovascular risk ⁵⁶.

Saturated Fats

All foods containing fat have a mix of specific types of fats. Even healthy foods like chicken and nuts have small amounts of saturated fat, though much less than the amounts found in butter, ghee, coconut oil, beef, cheese and ice cream. Saturated fat is mainly found in animal foods, but a few plant foods are also high in saturated fats, such as coconut, coconut oil, palm oil, and palm kernel oil.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends getting less than 10 percent of calories each day from saturated fat ⁵⁷.
The American Heart Association goes even further, recommending limiting saturated fat to no more than 7 percent of calories ⁵⁸.
Cutting back on saturated fat will likely have no benefit, however, if people replace saturated fat with refined carbohydrates. Eating refined carbohydrates in place of saturated fat does lower “bad” LDL cholesterol, but it also lowers the “good” HDL cholesterol and increases triglycerides. The net effect is as bad for the heart as eating too much saturated fat.

In the United States, the biggest sources of saturated fat ⁵⁹ in the diet are:

Pizza and cheese
Whole and reduced fat milk, butter and dairy desserts
Meat products (sausage, bacon, beef, hamburgers)
Cookies and other grain-based desserts
A variety of mixed fast food dishes

Though decades of dietary advice ⁶⁰ suggested saturated fat was harmful, in recent years that idea has begun to evolve. Several studies suggest that eating diets high in saturated fat do not raise the risk of heart disease, with one report analyzing the findings of 21 studies that followed 350,000 people for up to 23 years.

Investigators looked at the relationship between saturated fat intake and coronary heart disease (coronary artery disease), stroke, and cardiovascular disease. Their controversial conclusion: “There is insufficient evidence from prospective epidemiologic studies to conclude that dietary saturated fat is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, or cardiovascular disease” ⁶⁰.

A well-publicized 2014 study questioned the link between saturated fat and heart disease, but nutrition experts determined the paper to be seriously misleading. In order to set the record straight, Harvard School of Public Health convened a panel of nutrition experts and held a teach-in, “Saturated or not: Does type of fat matter?“

The overarching message is that cutting back on saturated fat can be good for health if people replace saturated fat with good fats, especially, polyunsaturated fats ⁶¹, ⁶². Eating good fats in place of saturated fat lowers the “bad” LDL cholesterol, and it improves the ratio of total cholesterol to “good” HDL cholesterol, lowering the risk of heart disease.

Eating good fats in place of saturated fat can also help prevent insulin resistance, a precursor to diabetes ⁶³. So while saturated fat may not be as harmful as once thought, evidence clearly shows that unsaturated fat remains the healthiest type of fat.

Trans Fats

Trans fatty acids, more commonly called trans fats, are made by heating liquid vegetable oils in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst, a process called hydrogenation.

Partially hydrogenating vegetable oils makes them more stable and less likely to become rancid. This process also converts the oil into a solid, which makes them function as margarine or shortening.

Partially hydrogenated oils can withstand repeated heating without breaking down, making them ideal for frying fast foods.

For these reasons, partially hydrogenated oils became a mainstay in restaurants and the food industry – for frying, baked goods, and processed snack foods and margarine.

Partially hydrogenated oil is not the only source of trans fats in our diets. Trans fats are also naturally found in beef fat and dairy fat in small amounts.

Eliminating industrial-produced trans fats from the U.S. food supply could prevent between 6 and 19 percent of heart attacks and related deaths, or as much as 200,000 each year ⁶⁴.

Trans fats are worse for cholesterol levels than saturated fats because they:

Raise bad LDL “bad” cholesterol and lower good HDL “good” cholesterol
Create inflammation ⁶⁵ – a reaction related to immunity – which has been implicated in heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and other chronic conditions
Contribute to insulin resistance ⁶⁶
Can have harmful health effects even in small amounts – for each additional 2 percent of calories from trans fat consumed daily, the risk of coronary heart disease increases by 23 percent.

Eliminating trans fats from food

In the 1990s, the average American was eating about 6 grams of trans fats a day; ideally that should be under 1 gram a day, and zero from partially hydrogenated oils is best ⁶⁷.

A 2006 labeling law required food companies to list trans fats on food labels. This caused many food makers to switch to using trans-fat-free oils and fats in their products, resulting in a reduction of trans fat levels in the U.S. food supply.

A study from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ⁶⁸ found that Americans’ blood-levels of trans fats dropped 58 percent from 2000 to 2009—evidence that the labeling law has had its desired effect.

A survey of 83 major-brand grocery store products and restaurant dishes offers encouraging news: When most of these food makers reformulated their products, they cut back on trans fat without increasing saturated fat ⁶⁹.

If a product contains less than half a gram of trans fat and a half gram of saturated fat per serving, it can still be labeled as “trans fat-free.” So while many products in the United States are labeled “trans fat-free,” those products may still contain a small amount of trans fat.

In June 2015 the FDA announced its decision to ban artificial trans fat in the food supply. Food manufacturers in the U.S. will have three years to remove partially hydrogenated oils — the primary source of artificial trans fat — from products.

While we’re making progress in the United States, trans-fat intake is widely used in some developing nations. Inexpensive partially hydrogenated soybean oil and palm oil have become staples not only for the food industry but also for home use. This shift away from traditional cooking oils and toward trans-rich partially hydrogenated oils is contributing to the growing epidemic of cardiovascular disease in developing nations around the world.

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Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Adzuki beans

by Health Jade Team on May 13, 2018

What are adzuki beans

Adzuki bean (Vigna angularis L.), sometimes called small red beans (approximately 5 mm) or English red mung bean, is a dietary legume crop in East Asian countries like China, Japan, and Korea as an ingredient for traditional dessert cuisines due to its sweet taste, as well as its nutritious protein and starch contents ¹. Consumption of legumes potentially reduces the risk of chronic diseases ² such as stroke, type II diabetes ³, cardiovascular ⁴, and gastrointestinal cancer ⁵. In addition to fiber, legume grains also contain many substances to improve health such as vitamins, minerals, and other substances, including phenolic compounds ³. The annual cultivation area for adzuki bean in China, Japan, Korean peninsula, and Taiwan is estimated to be 670,000, 120,000, 30,000, and 20,000 hectares, respectively ⁶. The wild species of adzuki bean such as Vigna angularis var. nipponensis, Vigna nakashimae, and Vigna nepalensis, are widely distributed across East Asia and Himalayan countries ⁷. However, archaeological evidences suggested multiple domestication origins in northeast Asia ⁸. The Adzuki bean cultivars most familiar in Northeast Asia have a uniform red color, however, white, black, gray, and variously mottled varieties also are known.

The predominant use of adzuki beans in traditional Japanese confections is a paste or wagashi such as youkan, manju and amanatto ⁹. Adzuki beans are a rich source of carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals and fiber ¹⁰; however, adzuki beans also contain antinutritional factors ¹¹. Antinutritional factors are substances that when present in human foods or water reduce the availability of one or more nutrients. Phytates, α-galactosides and trypsin inhibitors are among these antinutritional factors, and their concentrations differ widely among the different cultivars of adzuki beans. Therefore, when adzuki beans are used for confectionaries, they are boiled in a cooker and yield a hot water extract as a by-product, which is known to contain active ingredients, but is discarded. It has been reported that the 40% (w/v) ethanol fraction of the hot-water extract from adzuki beans suppresses not only proliferation of human stomach cancer cells in culture but also benzo(α)pyrene-induced tumorigenesis in the mouse fore-stomach ¹². Thus, the hot-water extract of adzuki beans has a number of effects according to studies in animals (e.g., rats) ¹³. Thompson et al. ¹⁴ have reported that polyphenols and phytic acid have potential hypoglycemic activity. A study in rats with with streptozotocin induced diabetes show that adzuki bean paste produced by boiling adzuki beans has inhibitory activity against alpha-glucosidase, alpha-amylase, maltase, sucrase, and isomaltase ¹⁵. The adzuki bean paste showed potential hypoglycemic activity in both normal mice and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats after an oral administration of sucrose, but did not show any effect on the blood glucose concentration after glucose administration, suggesting that the active fraction suppressed the postprandial blood glucose level by inhibiting alpha-glucosidase and alpha-amylase, irrespective of the endogenous blood insulin level. Wu et al. ¹⁶ have shown recently that a water-soluble extract of the adzuki beans could inhibit acetaminophen-induced liver damage. Han et al. ¹⁷ have reported the protective action of an adzuki extract against acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity via a hepatic γ-glutamylcysteinylglycine-mediated antioxidation/detoxification system in rat liver after four weeks of feeding.

Figure 1. Adzuki beans

Figure 2. Black adzuki beans

Adzuki beans nutrition

Cooked adzuki beans are 66% water, 25% carbohydrates, including 7.3% dietary fiber, 8% protein, and contain negligible fat. In a 100 gram amount, cooked beans provide 128 Calories. Adzuki beans contain a moderate to high content (10% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamin folate (30% DV) and several dietary minerals (11% to 27% DV).

The fatty acids compositions of total lipids and phospholipids in the adzuki beans were compared among the five cultivars (data not shown). The low total lipid contents of adzuki beans is similar to other foods – cereals as rice and rye, and legumes as bean, chick-pea and beans, that have less than 2% of fat, but with the advantage that the fat of the adzuki bean possesses a healthy Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) omega-6/omega-3 which are essential fatty acids for human nutrition. Adzuki beans has good amounts of total unsaturated fatty acids which consisted mainly of linoleic (18:2n-6) acid, followed by α-linolenic (18:3n-3) and oleic (18:1n-9) acids, representing 70.6-73.8 wt-% and 69.9-72.6 wt-% for total lipids and phospholipids, respectively.

Table 1. Adzuki beans (mature seeds raw) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	13.44
Energy	kcal	329
Energy	kJ	1377
Protein	g	19.87
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.53
Ash	g	3.26
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	62.9
Fiber, total dietary	g	12.7
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	66
Iron, Fe	mg	4.98
Magnesium, Mg	mg	127
Phosphorus, P	mg	381
Potassium, K	mg	1254
Sodium, Na	mg	5
Zinc, Zn	mg	5.04
Copper, Cu	mg	1.094
Manganese, Mn	mg	1.73
Selenium, Se	µg	3.1
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.455
Riboflavin	mg	0.22
Niacin	mg	2.63
Pantothenic acid	mg	1.471
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.351
Folate, total	µg	622
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	622
Folate, DFE	µg	622
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	1
Retinol	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	17
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.191
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.05
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.05
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.113
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.113
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Phytosterols	mg	76
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.191
Threonine	g	0.674
Isoleucine	g	0.791
Leucine	g	1.668
Lysine	g	1.497
Methionine	g	0.21
Cystine	g	0.184
Phenylalanine	g	1.052
Tyrosine	g	0.591
Valine	g	1.023
Arginine	g	1.284
Histidine	g	0.524
Alanine	g	1.16
Aspartic acid	g	2.355
Glutamic acid	g	3.099
Glycine	g	0.756
Proline	g	0.874
Serine	g	0.976
Isoflavones
Daidzein	mg	0.35
Genistein	mg	0.23
Glycitein	mg	0
Total isoflavones	mg	0.58
Biochanin A	mg	0
Formononetin	mg	0
Coumestrol	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers	mg	19.4
Proanthocyanidin trimers	mg	18.1
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers	mg	80
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers	mg	75.7
Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers)	mg	252.9

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁸]

Table 2. Adzuki beans (mature seeds cooked or boiled without added salt) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	66.29
Energy	kcal	128
Energy	kJ	536
Protein	g	7.52
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.1
Ash	g	1.33
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	24.77
Fiber, total dietary	g	7.3
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	28
Iron, Fe	mg	2
Magnesium, Mg	mg	52
Phosphorus, P	mg	168
Potassium, K	mg	532
Sodium, Na	mg	8
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.77
Copper, Cu	mg	0.298
Manganese, Mn	mg	0.573
Selenium, Se	µg	1.2
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.115
Riboflavin	mg	0.064
Niacin	mg	0.717
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.43
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.096
Folate, total	µg	121
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	121
Folate, DFE	µg	121
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0
Retinol	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	6
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.036
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.009
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.009
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.021
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.021
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.072
Threonine	g	0.255
Isoleucine	g	0.3
Leucine	g	0.632
Lysine	g	0.567
Methionine	g	0.079
Cystine	g	0.07
Phenylalanine	g	0.398
Tyrosine	g	0.224
Valine	g	0.387
Arginine	g	0.486
Histidine	g	0.198
Alanine	g	0.439
Aspartic acid	g	0.891
Glutamic acid	g	1.173
Glycine	g	0.286
Proline	g	0.331
Serine	g	0.369

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹⁸]

Adzuki beans health benefits

Adzuki bean is a very important bean in the East Asia. Adzuki bean is used as a diuretic, antidote, and remedy for edema and beriberi in traditional Chinese medicine ¹⁹ and being prescribed for infection and inflammation of the appendix, kidney and bladder ²⁰. Water and methanolic or ethanolic extracts of azuki bean have been demonstrated to up-regulate inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and to reduce blood pressure ²¹, decrease serum cholesterol levels ²² and ameliorate diabetes progression ²³. Azuki bean seed coats, which are rich in polyphenols, were recently reported to attenuate vascular oxidative stress in spontaneously hypertensive rats ²⁴. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of the beneficial effects of azuki bean. To date, only one study has reported the immunomodulatory mechanism of azuki bean extract: an ethanol extract inhibited nuclear factor (NF)-κB, activator protein (AP)-1, and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) activation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-, poly(I:C)- and pam3CSK-activated macrophages and blocked the activation of the upstream signalling molecules, including p38 and TAK1 ²⁵. Blockade of IL-6 activities with tocilizumab (anti-IL-6 receptor antibody) has been reported to significantly reduce disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis, indicating that IL-6 is strongly involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis ²⁶. This study ²⁷ showed that the inhibitory activity of adzuki beans on IL-6 signalling was associated with an anti-rheumatic effect by using a collagen-induced arthritis mice model. Oral administration of adzuki beans extract suppressed tissue damage occurring in collagen-induced arthritis. The adzuki beans extract triterpenoids — oleanolic acid and oleanolic acid acetate— have the potential to be an effective treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, but requires furhter investigation and studies in order to be considered for rheumatoid arthritis treatment.

Polyphenols are plant secondary metabolites and have attracted interest with health benefits ²⁸. Genistein, a polyphenol compound, belongs to the category of isoflavones, and has been found almost every leguminous plants including adzuki beans (Figure 3). Early studies indicated that genistein protects age-associated degenerative disorders such as myocardial infarction (heart attack) ²⁹, hepatic failure ³⁰, diabetes, obesity ³¹ and brain damage ³². In addition, genistein proved to be effective in neuroprotection and bone loss in animal models via estrogen-mimicking activity ³³.

Figure 3. Adzuki beans genistein

[Source ³⁴]

Phenolic compounds are resistant to oxidation and protect cell damage to prevent the risk of degenerative diseases thanks to antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic and anticarcinogenic activities ³⁵. There were 11 phenolic constituents identified in adzuki beans ³⁶. Total phenolics are naturally produced during the growth and development of plants to protect themselves from biotic stresses such as diseases, insects and environmental stresses ³⁵. Antioxidant activity is closely related to phenolic content ³⁷. The change in total phenolic content in legumes during germination is illustrated in Table 3. The phenolic concentration dramatically increased in all legumes after five days of germination. In ungerminated grains, the content of total phenolics ranged from 5.80 (mung beans) to 18.21 (peanuts) mg GAE/g dry sample. After 5 days of sprouting, the phenolic content in mung beans, white cowpeas, soybeans and peanuts increased 2-fold, while that in black beans and adzuki beans showed about a 50% and 25% increase, respectively. In particular, peanuts had the highest concentration, which was 37.59 mg GAE/g, followed by soybeans (28.27 mg GAE/g), white cowpeas (19.46 mg GAE/g), adzuki beans (16.96 mg GAE/g), black beans (16.47 mg GAE/g), and mung beans (14.97 mg GAE/g). Adzuki beans and black beans are dark skin seeds that contain anthocyanidin pigments consisting of delphinidin, cyanidin, pelargonidin, malvidin, and petunidin ³⁸.

Table 3. Total phenolic content (mg GAE/g dry weight) of ungerminated and germinated legumes

	Black Beans	Mung Beans	Peanuts	Adzuki Beans	Soybeans	White Cowpeas
0 h	11.74 ± 0.07	5.80 ± 0.05	18.21 ± 0.15	12.21 ± 0.06	12.12 ± 0.09	7.79 ± 0.02
24 h	13.17 ± 0.10 ^r	11.47 ± 0.09 ^tu	26.89 ± 0.11 ^f	13.64 ± 0.17 ^q	21.46 ± 0.05 ⁱ	11.33 ± 0.09 ^u
48 h	13.62 ± 0.07 ^q	12.32 ± 0.36 ^s	28.71 ± 0.16 ^d	15.59 ± 0.05 ⁿ	21.61 ± 0.11 ⁱ	14.06 ± 0.08 ^p
72 h	14.20 ± 0.18 ^p	12.28 ± 0.13 ^s	29.39 ± 0.04 ^c	15.89 ± 0.05 ⁿ	23.92 ± 0.08 ^h	14.71 ± 0.07 °
96 h	13.47 ± 1.17 ^qr	12.47 ± 0.09 ^s	30.34 ± 0.09 ^b	16.57 ± 0.05 ^m	24.75 ± 0.15 ^g	16.29 ± 0.11 ^m
120 h	16.47 ± 0.14 ^m	14.97 ± 0.09 °	37.59 ± 0.18 ^a	16.96 ± 0.06 ^l	28.27 ± 0.11 ^e	19.46 ± 0.09 ^j

Note: Means ± SD (standard deviation) that do not share a superscript letter are significantly different at 95% confidential level.

[Source ³⁶]

Table 4. Phenolic components and concentrations (µg/g dry weight) of legumes after 5-day germination

Phenolic components	Black Beans	Mung Beans	Peanuts	Adzuki Beans	Soybeans	White Cowpeas
Gallic acid	nd	nd	nd	nd	21.3 ± 2.9	nd
Protocatechuic acid	nd	nd	15.1 ± 2.5 ^b	2.2 ± 0.1 ^c	41.5 ± 6.6 ^a	nd
p-hydroxybenzoic acid	24.1 ± 1.0 ^b	15.9 ± 0.3 ^b	16.8 ± 0.1 ^b	19.5 ± 0.6 ^b	66.6 ± 0.8 ^a	nd
Vanillic acid	43.8 ± 0.8 ^c	5.2 ± 0.7^e	67.6 ± 0.8 ^b	25.2 ± 0.9 ^d	189.2 ± 10.1 ^a	nd
Caffeic acid	nd	nd	nd	nd	nd	70.8 ± 6.6
Syringic acid	79.8 ± 1.7 ^b	16.7 ± 1.8 ^c	nd	23.8 ± 0.8 ^c	327.5 ± 14.9 ^a	30.4 ± 5.3 ^c
Vanillin	12.4 ± 0.8 ^b	14.2 ± 0.5 ^b	nd	15.9 ± 2.9 ^b	nd	28.9 ± 3.3 ^a
Ferulic acid	nd	26.6 ± 2.8 ^c	330.3 ± 16.0 ^a	15.7 ± 1.6 ^c	72.9 ± 5.6 ^b	18.2 ± 0.8 ^c
Sinapic acid	109.1 ± 0.5 ^c	163.5 ± 3.8 ^b	247.9 ± 21.1 ^a	150.7 ± 4.6 ^b	218.1 ± 7.5 ^a	99.65 ± 7.4 ^c
p-coumaric acid	72.1 ± 3.1 ^b	288.7 ± 3.6 ^a	nd	14.4 ± 2.8 ^c	18.1 ± 4.5 ^c	81.95 ± 0.65 ^b
Benzoic acid	253.5 ± 26.7 ^b	636.0 ± 2.4 ^a	nd	124.8 ± 51.9 ^c	nd	199.5 ± 36.4 ^bc
Ellagic acid	54.4 ± 3.9 ^ns	nd	126.2 ± 89.3 ^ns	30.3 ± 4.0 ^ns	59.6 ± 2.4 ^ns	48.3 ± 6.5 ^ns
Cinnamic acid	14.85 ± 2.9 ^ab	4.0±0.1 ^b	62.9 ± 35.6 ^a	3.1 ± 0.2 ^b	36.2 ± 1.5 ^ab	12.5 ± 3.2 ^ab

Note: Means ± SD (standard deviation) that do not share a letter in the same row are significantly different at 95% confidential level. ns: not significantly different; nd: not detected.

[Source ³⁶]

Table 5. Antioxidant activities of 5-day germinated legume extracts

Sample	DPPH• Scavenging (%)	Reducing Power (%)
Black beans	7.44 ± 0.39 ^f	64.92 ± 0.57 ^c
Mung beans	17.46 ± 0.60 ^d	26.45 ± 0.95 ^f
Peanuts	32.51 ± 0.54 ^a	84.48 ± 1.24 ^a
Adzuki beans	20.80 ± 0.39 ^c	42.51 ± 1.24 ^e
Soybeans	26.94 ± 0.71 ^b	75.08 ± 1.18 ^b
White cowpeas	11.17 ± 0.63 ^e	61.53 ± 0.68 ^d

Note: Means ± SD that do not share a superscript letter are significantly different at 95% confidential level.

The antioxidant activities of germinated legumes were evaluated by the DPPH method and the reducing power assay, as shown in Table 5. It was found that the six legume extracts had different antioxidant activity levels at a 0.1 mg/mL dose. In particular, peanuts had the highest antioxidant activity at 32.51%, which was significantly different from the others, while black beans showed the lowest antioxidant activity (7.44%). The reducing power of germinated peanuts obtained maximum activity (84.48%) compared to other studied legumes (Table 5), whereas the lowest antioxidant activity was mung beans (26.45%). Although adzuki beans had higher DPPH- scavenging activity than black beans and white cowpeas, the reducing power capacity of adzuki beans was, in contrast, significantly lower than that of black beans and white cowpeas (Table 5).

In this study, peanuts contained a maximum concentration of phenolics, which may result in the strongest antioxidant activity of the legume. Furthermore, according to Corral-Aguayo et al. ³⁹, when compared to the antioxidant activity, resveratrol had stronger activity than flavonoids. In addition, the main substances in soybean phenolics were flavonoids, whereas, in other legumes (chickpeas and black, red, and white cowpeas), the major components were phenolic acids ⁴⁰. This may explain why soybeans had greater antioxidant activities than the other four legumes in the DPPH assay.

[Source ³⁶]

Although no evidence is available for the mechanism of action of common beans on other kinds of cancer, the antiproliferative effect of legumes, including Adzuki beans, has been explored ⁴¹. Adzuki bean exhibited the strongest antiproliferative properties in a dose-dependent manner against all digestive system cancer cell lines (CAL27, AGS, HepG2, SW480 and Caco-2), ovary cancer cell SK-OV-3 and breast cancer cell MCF-7 among all legumes tested ⁴². Nakaya et al. ⁴³ suggested that adzuki bean and its heat-stable extract is immunopotentiating foods that can be used as dietary supplements for cancer prevention and immunotherapy. Adzuki bean stimulates differentiation of bone marrow cells into immature dendritic cells with the greatest efficacy compared to 30 types of edible beans with biological activity. The level of IL-6 produced by sequential treatment of dendritic cells with Adzuki extract and lipopolysaccharide was the highest among the examined beans. Adzuki beans extract also inhibited the growth of human leukemia U937 cells, leading to induction of apoptosis. Further research is warranted regarding the implications and the molecular mechanisms in which adzuki beans and their bioactive compounds modulate the development of different types of cancer.

Hot-water adzuki beans extract contains such chemical compounds as catechins and saponins which are well-known bioactive ingredients ⁴⁴. Ito and colleagues have previously reported that the 40% ethanol-eluted fraction of hot-water adzuki beans extract and HP-20 resin possessed antitumor ⁴⁵, antioxidative ⁴⁶ anti-metastatic ⁴⁶ and anti-diabetic activities, ⁴⁷, lowered the serum cholesterol levels ⁴⁸ and enhanced melanogenesis ⁴⁹. The color of hot-water adzuki beans extract originates from (+)-catechin ⁵⁰. Choi et al. ⁵¹ and Nakamura et al. ⁵² have reported that (+)-catechin and green tea catechin regulated osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation.

Obesity increases the risk of metabolic disorders such as hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes ⁵³. Both an increased number of adipocytes (fat cells), due to enhanced differentiation of preadipocytes into adipocytes, and increased adipocyte size due to lipid accumulation are shown to participate in the expansion of adipose tissue ⁵⁴. Numerous studies have suggested that oxidative stress may be the linking mechanism in the pathway leading from obesity to obesity-related chronic diseases ⁵⁵. Black adzuki bean exhibited the greatest antioxidant activity compared to 20 other kinds of adzuki beans ⁵⁶. Adzuki beans have been evaluated as potential remedies for hypercholesterolemia, hyperglycemia, and inflammation in mice and rats ⁵⁷, ⁵⁸ and preliminary data have shown that black adzuki beans inhibit proliferation and mitotic clonal expansion and subsequently inhibit the adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 cells ⁵⁹. Although recent studies have reported evidence that the adzuki beans affect the regulation of lipid metabolism, it remains to be determined whether they may be effective in overcoming obesity by regulating appetite and satiety. Chau et al. ⁶⁰ observed no changes in serum total cholesterol, LDL “bad” cholesterol and HDL “good” cholesterol levels in hamsters fed a hypercholesterolemic diet by using a adzuki bean protein concentrate.

In a study on mouse, a hot-water extract of adzuki beans was found to stimulate tyrosinase activity in cultured mouse B16 melanoma cells and hair color pigmentation in C3H mice ⁶¹. At concentrations of 1–3 mg/ml, adzuki beans hot-water extract stimulated melanogenesis without inhibiting cell growth. During this effect, WEx activated tyrosinase-inducing activity in the cells, but did not activate tyrosinase, which exists at an intracellular level. In this study, adzuki beans hot-water extract increased cyclic adenosine-3′,5′-monophospate (cAMP) content in the cells and protein kinase A (PKA) activity, and stimulated translocation of cytosolic protein kinase C to the membrane-bound protein kinase C ⁶¹. These results suggest that the addition of adzuki beans hot-water extract activates the adenylcyclase and protein kinase pathways and, as a result, stimulates melanogenesis. Adzuki beans hot-water extract was found to have pigmentation activity on hair color in C3H mice. This effect might be useful in anti-graying, protecting human skin from irradiation ⁶¹.

Azuki beans contain polyphenols such as proanthocyanidins that exhibit potential radical scavenging activities ⁶². Spontaneously hypertensive rats with approximately 200 mm Hg systolic blood pressure were randomly divided into 2 groups fed either 0% or 0.9% azuki bean extract-containing diet. Azuki bean extract reduced the elevated blood pressure and increased nitric oxide (NO) production in long-term treatment ⁶³.

Osteoporosis is a global public health problem thought to be caused by an imbalance in bone metabolism. Bone metabolic balance (bone resorption and bone formation) is maintained by osteoclasts and osteoblasts ⁶⁴. Aging is accompanied by disruption in bone metabolism leading to osteoporosis; the risk is particularly high in women who tend to lose bone after menopause. Aging-associated degeneration of the osteoblast function also reduces bone mass, as does malnutrition or under-nutrition (a deficiency of micronutrients and macronutrients). This study ⁶⁵ the 40% ethanol fraction in combination with a hot-water adzuki beans extract was examined for its effect on osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation. Adzuki beans extract -treated mice preosteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells exhibited significantly elevated alkaline phosphatase activity and mineralization. Adzuki beans extract facilitated osteoblast differentiation by up-regulating such osteoblast differentiation-related molecules as runt-related transcription factor 2, distal-less homeobox 5, and osterix via p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. In summary this study ⁶⁵ suggest that 40% ethanol-eluted fraction of hot-water adzuki beans extract could be used to treat senile osteoporosis and postmenopausal osteoporosis. Lee et al. have reported that the consumption of such a legume as adzuki improved the levels of bone markers in ovariectomized rats ⁶⁶. However what the active compound is in the hot-water adzuki beans extract have yet to be elucidated. Further studies are needed to verify the effect of 40% ethanol-eluted fraction of hot-water adzuki beans extract on osteoporosis in animal models.

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Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Are pistachio nuts good for you?

by Health Jade Team on May 10, 2018

What are pistachio nuts

Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), a member of the cashew (Anacardiaceae) family, is a small tree cultivated in Iran, Turkey, United States, Syria, Italy, Tunisia, and Greece ¹. Iran is one of the biggest producers and exporters of pistachio nuts ². Fruit of Pistacia vera (pistachio) is used all over the world. Pistachios are globally distributed and consumed as a healthy snack. Pistachios can also be added to many savory dishes such as pastas, marinades and crusts for meat entrees, salsas, and stir-fries as well as a topping for salads, yogurts, and dips. Moreover, different parts of pistachio plant (Pistacia vera L.), including flower, leaf, seed and resins derived from stem, have pharmacological properties like antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities ³. Records of the consumption of pistachio as a food date to 7000 BC ⁴. The tree produces pistachio seeds (nuts) that are widely consumed as food. Pistachio nuts are a rich source of phenolic compounds, known for their high antioxidant activity, and contained not only in the seeds but also in the skin ⁵. Unfortunately, pistachio nut is also responsible for triggering moderate to severe IgE-mediated reactions in allergic individuals ⁶. Currently, pistachio nut allergy has gained some special attention, mainly due to its intrinsic relation with cashew nut allergy.

Pistachio is a desert plant that is highly adaptable to abiotic stresses and considered as a tolerant species against drought and salt stresses and is highly tolerant of saline soil. Although pistachio is categorized as a salt-tolerant glycophyte species, its yield is dramatically constrained under the high salinity conditions ⁷. It has been reported to grow well when irrigated with water having 3,000–4,000 ppm of soluble salts. Pistachio trees are fairly hardy in the right conditions and can survive temperatures ranging between −10 °C (14 °F) in winter and 48 °C (118 °F) in summer. They need a sunny position and well-drained soil. Pistachio trees do poorly in conditions of high humidity and are susceptible to root rot in winter if they get too much water and the soil is not sufficiently free-draining. Long, hot summers are required for proper ripening of the fruit. Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) often is confused with other species in the genus Pistacia that are also known as pistachio. These other species can be distinguished by their geographic distributions (in the wild) and their seeds which are much smaller and have a soft shell.

To prevent fatty acids in pistachios from oxidation, store pistachios in an airtight container in the refrigerator at 40°F (4°C) for up to 1 year. At room temperature 68°F (20°C), they should be kept in a dry environment and will last several months.

Figure 1. Pistachio

Figure 2. Pistachio nuts

Pistachio nutrition

Pistachio nuts are a nutritionally dense food. In a 100 gram serving, pistachio nuts provide 560 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value or DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several dietary minerals (i.e, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium) and the B vitamins, thiamin and especially vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) at 131% DV. Pistachio nuts are a good source (10–19% DV) of calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A, vitamin B5, vitamin C, folate, vitamin E (especially γ-tocopherol), and vitamin K. Pistachios are also a good source of vegetable protein (about 21% of total weight), with an essential amino acid ratio higher than most other commonly consumed nuts (ie, almonds, walnuts, pecans, and hazelnuts), and they have a high percentage of branched chain amino acids ⁸. The amount of total carbohydrates is low to moderate (about 29% by weight), but they are richer in fiber than other nuts with a 10% by weight of insoluble forms and 0.3% of soluble forms (Table 3).

Pistachio nut is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins ⁹ and carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene, and γ-tocopherol) content. Saturated fatty acids include palmitic acid (10% of total) and stearic acid (2%). Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated fatty acid (51% of total fat) and linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is 31% of total fat. Relative to other tree nuts (see Table 3 below), pistachios have a lower amount of fat and calories but higher amounts of potassium, vitamin K, γ-tocopherol, and certain phytochemicals such as carotenoids and phytosterols. Dry roasted pistachios have a lower fat content (45.82 g/100 g), which is composed mainly of saturated fatty acid (5.6 g), polyunsaturated fatty acid (13.3 g), and monounsaturated fatty acid (24.5 g).

Moreover, pistachios are also a rich source of lutein and zeaxanthin (xanthophyll carotenoids) and phenolic compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins, and their antioxidant capacity is considerable. Pistachios are the nuts that have the highest content of phytosterols, including stigmasterol, campesterol, and β-sitosterol ¹⁰. This complete and diverse set of micronutrients and macronutrients means that pistachio nuts are potentially one of the more health-promoting foods. Their beneficial properties, based on pistachios’ specific macronutrient, micronutrient and bioactive molecules will remain unchanged even after cooked. Moreover, other properties such as their contribution to the glycemic index and glycemic load of a particular meal would be improved by their inclusion.

Table 1. Pistachio nuts (raw) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	4.37
Energy	kcal	560
Energy	kJ	2342
Protein	g	20.16
Total lipid (fat)	g	45.32
Ash	g	2.99
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	27.17
Fiber, total dietary	g	10.6
Sugars, total	g	7.66
Sucrose	g	6.87
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.32
Fructose	g	0.24
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0.17
Starch	g	1.67
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	105
Iron, Fe	mg	3.92
Magnesium, Mg	mg	121
Phosphorus, P	mg	490
Potassium, K	mg	1025
Sodium, Na	mg	1
Zinc, Zn	mg	2.2
Copper, Cu	mg	1.3
Manganese, Mn	mg	1.2
Selenium, Se	µg	7
Fluoride, F	µg	3.4
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	5.6
Thiamin	mg	0.87
Riboflavin	mg	0.16
Niacin	mg	1.3
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.52
Vitamin B-6	mg	1.7
Folate, total	µg	51
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	51
Folate, DFE	µg	51
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	26
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	305
Carotene, alpha	µg	10
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	516
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	2903
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	2.86
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	20.41
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0.8
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	5.907
04:00:00	g	0
6:0	g	0.012
8:0	g	0
10:0	g	0.004
12:0	g	0
13:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.019
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	5.265
17:0	g	0.009
18:0	g	0.478
20:0	g	0.046
22:0	g	0.04
24:0	g	0
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	23.257
14:1	g	0
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.495
18:1 undifferentiated	g	22.674
20:1	g	0.089
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
24:1 c	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	14.38
18:2 undifferentiated	g	14.091
18:2 n-6 c,c	g	14.091
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.289
18:04:00	g	0
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Phytosterols	mg	214
Stigmasterol	mg	5
Campesterol	mg	10
Beta-sitosterol	mg	198
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.251
Threonine	g	0.684
Isoleucine	g	0.917
Leucine	g	1.604
Lysine	g	1.138
Methionine	g	0.36
Cystine	g	0.292
Phenylalanine	g	1.092
Tyrosine	g	0.509
Valine	g	1.249
Arginine	g	2.134
Histidine	g	0.512
Alanine	g	0.973
Aspartic acid	g	1.884
Glutamic acid	g	4.3
Glycine	g	1.009
Proline	g	0.938
Serine	g	1.283
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0
Anthocyanidins
Cyanidin	mg	7.3
Petunidin	mg	0
Delphinidin	mg	0
Malvidin	mg	0
Pelargonidin	mg	0
Peonidin	mg	0
Flavan-3-ols
(+)-Catechin	mg	3.6
(-)-Epigallocatechin	mg	2
(-)-Epicatechin	mg	0.8
(-)-Epicatechin 3-gallate	mg	0
(-)-Epigallocatechin 3-gallate	mg	0.4
(+)-Gallocatechin	mg	0
Flavanones
Hesperetin	mg	0
Naringenin	mg	0
Flavones
Apigenin	mg	0
Luteolin	mg	0
Flavonols
Myricetin	mg	0
Quercetin	mg	1.5
Isoflavones
Daidzein	mg	1.87
Genistein	mg	1.75
Glycitein	mg	0
Total isoflavones	mg	3.63
Formononetin	mg	0
Coumestrol	mg	0.01
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers	mg	13.3
Proanthocyanidin trimers	mg	10.5
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers	mg	42.2
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers	mg	37.9
Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers)	mg	122.5

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹¹]

Table 2. Pistachio nuts (dry roasted without added salt) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	1.85
Energy	kcal	572
Energy	kJ	2392
Protein	g	21.05
Total lipid (fat)	g	45.82
Ash	g	3
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	28.28
Fiber, total dietary	g	10.3
Sugars, tota	g	7.74
Sucrose	g	7.09
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.25
Fructose	g	0.22
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0.13
Galactose	g	0.05
Starch	g	1.38
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	107
Iron, Fe	mg	4.03
Magnesium, Mg	mg	109
Phosphorus, P	mg	469
Potassium, K	mg	1007
Sodium, Na	mg	6
Zinc, Zn	mg	2.34
Copper, Cu	mg	1.293
Manganese, Mn	mg	1.243
Selenium, Se	µg	10
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	3
Thiamin	mg	0.695
Riboflavin	mg	0.234
Niacin	mg	1.373
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.513
Vitamin B-6	mg	1.122
Folate, total	µg	51
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	51
Folate, DFE	µg	51
Choline, total	mg	71.4
Betaine	mg	0.8
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	13
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	159
Carotene, alpha	µg	0
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	266
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	1160
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	2.17
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0.13
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	23.42
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0.55
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	13.2
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	5.645
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
8:0	g	0
10:0	g	0
12:0	g	0
13:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.012
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	4.994
17:0	g	0.011
18:0	g	0.558
20:0	g	0.033
22:0	g	0.026
24:0	g	0.011
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	24.534
14:1	g	0.005
15:1	g	0.009
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.464
17:1	g	0.02
18:1 undifferentiated	g	23.926
18:1 t	g	0
20:1	g	0.106
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0.005
24:1 c	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	13.346
18:2 undifferentiated	g	13.125
18:2 n-6 c,c	g	13.125
18:2 t not further defined	g	0
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.212
18:3 n-3 c,c,c (ALA)	g	0.212
18:3 n-6 c,c,c	g	0
18:04:00	g	0
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0.005
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0.005
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans-monoenoic	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Stigmasterol	mg	2
Campesterol	mg	10
Beta-sitosterol	mg	210
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.262
Threonine	g	0.714
Isoleucine	g	0.957
Leucine	g	1.675
Lysine	g	1.189
Methionine	g	0.375
Cystine	g	0.305
Phenylalanine	g	1.14
Tyrosine	g	0.531
Valine	g	1.305
Arginine	g	2.228
Histidine	g	0.535
Alanine	g	1.016
Aspartic acid	g	1.968
Glutamic acid	g	4.49
Glycine	g	1.054
Proline	g	0.98
Serine	g	1.34
Hydroxyproline	g	0.096
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹¹]

Table 3. Pistachio nuts nutritional value compared with other nuts

[Source: ¹²]

Health benefits of pistachio nuts

Pistachio nuts are considered a rich source of many important bio-functional compounds that are useful for the human diet and known for their various pharmacological properties such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, and anti-nociceptive activities ¹³. Recently, scientists analyzed and described the nutraceutical, antioxidant, and cytoprotective activity of crude phenols and anthocyanins-rich extracts derived from ripe pistachio hulls, a by-product of the pistachio industry ¹⁴. As their nutritional profile suggests, pistachios can play an important role in improving such metabolic conditions as overweight, type 2 diabetes mellitus or metabolic syndrome.

Nut consumption is associated with significant reductions in cardiovascular disease risk and all-cause mortality ¹⁵. In the Nurses’ Health Study ¹⁵, women who consumed >2 servings of nuts per week had an 18% reduction in cardiac death compared with women who did not eat nuts regularly. In short-term, randomized trials, almonds, walnuts and pistachios ¹⁶ significantly reduced low-density lipoprotein (LDL) “bad” cholesterol and total cholesterol, when compared with a typical Western diet or diets low in saturated fat ¹⁷. Scientists have shown previously that including 1 or 2 servings per day of pistachios in a healthy diet reduced LDL “bad” cholesterol by 9% to 12% ¹⁸. The effects of pistachios on the ratio of LDL “bad” cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein “good” (HDL) cholesterol were dose dependent, with larger improvements in LDL “bad” cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein “good” cholesterol ¹⁸ and greater reductions in oxidized LDL “bad” cholesterol ¹⁹ when participants consumed 2 servings per day. Relative to other nuts, pistachios are a rich source of antioxidants, including lutein, β-carotene, and γ-tocopherol in addition to containing selenium, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins ²⁰. As would be expected, pistachios have a relatively high in vitro antioxidant capacity ²¹. Oxidized LDL “bad” cholesterol ²² and lipid peroxidation products are found in elevated concentrations in atherosclerotic plaques ²³ and are thought to play an important role in the development and progression of atherosclerosis ²². Thus, strategies that reduce in body oxidative stress are thought to confer cardioprotective effects.

Lipid Profile

Previous dietary interventions with pistachios conducted in humans have shown improvements in lipoprotein profiles ²⁴ and one reported a beneficial effect on serum antioxidant status (measured using a malondialdehyde assay) in 44 males and females who consumed a diet that provided 20% of their energy as pistachios for 3 weeks ²⁴. Another study ²⁵ demonstrated beneficial effects of pistachios on multiple biomarkers of oxidative state. The study found significant decreases in serum oxidized-LDL “bad” cholesterol in participants following the pistachio-enriched diets relative to the control diet ²⁵. The decrease in oxidized-LDL “bad” cholesterol was accompanied by a significant increase in serum concentrations of antioxidants (relative to the control diet), including γ-tocopherol, lutein and β-carotene, thus indicating a beneficial effect of pistachios on concentrations of serum antioxidants ²⁵. The results of this 2016 systematic review ²⁶ provide solid evidence that intake of pistachio nuts may exerts favorable effects on the traditional blood profile, provided that their consumption does not increase the habitual or recommended daily caloric intake.

In summary, evidence suggests that pistachios may improve well-established and novel blood lipid markers of atherosclerosis and therefore help decrease cardiovascular risk. In order to fully establish the potential health effects of pistachio consumption on the prevention of cardiovascular events clinical trials needed to be carried out in the future.

Figure 3. Possible health benefits of pistachios consumption

Note: CVD = cardiovascular disease

[Source ²⁷]

Lowers Blood Pressure

Several prospective studies have shown an inverse association between nut consumption and blood pressure or hypertension ¹². However, the results of clinical trials are more controversial. The intake of 10% of energy in the form of pistachios for 1 month significantly reduced systolic blood pressure and made no difference in diastolic blood pressure compared with the control nut-free group ²⁸. Similarly, a recent study conducted in type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects showed a reduction in systolic blood pressure after 4 weeks consuming a diet with 20% energy from pistachios ²⁹. Moreover, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of more than 20 randomized controlled trials found that although diastolic blood pressure was reduced by the intake of mixed nuts, pistachios alone seemed to have the strongest effect on reducing both systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure ³⁰.

Walnut, hazelnut, and pistachio consumption also improves the circulating concentrations of endothelial markers and endothelial function ³⁰.

In conclusion, chronic pistachio consumption has proved to have a beneficial effect on blood pressure and endothelial function, which may help to improve cardiovascular risk ¹².

Glucose and Insulin Metabolism

Pistachios have more total carbohydrates (29% w/w) than do other nuts, but their consumption has no deleterious effect in subjects with abnormal glucose and insulin metabolism.

Data from several epidemiological studies and clinical trials suggest that the frequency of nut consumption is inversely related to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. This may be because of the fact that nuts are relatively high in fiber, healthy fats, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory content ³¹. In addition, among all nuts, pistachios have a low glycemic index (GI), suggesting that they may reduce postprandial glycemia and insulinemia and therefore contribute to reducing the type 2 diabetes mellitus risk ³². Pistachios consumed alone had a minimal effect on postprandial glycemia, but the addition of pistachios to a meal containing foods rich in carbohydrates with a high glycemic index (eg, pasta, parboiled rice, or instant mashed potatoes) ³³ or bread ³² reduces postprandial glycemia in a dose-dependent response.

Several clinical studies have investigated the effect of pistachio consumption on glucose concentrations. They observed a significant decrease in fasting plasma glucose ³⁴, in glucose but not in insulin blood levels ³⁵, and in both fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels ³⁶ after pistachio intake. Only 1 cross-over study conducted on metabolic syndrome subjects free of type 2 diabetes has shown no significant changes in fasting plasma glucose or in insulin concentrations during the pistachio-enriched diet period compared with the intervention period without pistachios ³⁷.

Pistachio consumption has also proved to have beneficial effects on diabetes control. In a randomized controlled study ³⁸, the intake of mixed nuts (including pistachios) for 3 months in type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects, as a replacement for carbohydrate-containing foods, demonstrated for the first time a significant decrease in hemoglobin A1c in a full-nut dose compared with a half-nut and control-muffin doses. Results were similar in a recent crossover trial with 48 diabetic participants after 3 months of pistachio consumption ³⁹. Pistachio intake has also recently been found to significantly enhance the glucose and insulin metabolism of prediabetic patients ³⁶ and improve insulin resistance status and other cardiovascular risk factors.

Despite the positive results observed for glucose metabolism, more studies need to be made to evaluate the long-term effects of pistachio consumption on insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus prevention and control.

Satiety Regulation and Weight Management

Because nuts are energy-dense foods with a high fat content, one of the main concerns regarding the regular consumption of nuts in a worldwide pandemic of overweight and obesity is that nuts are believed to be fattening. To date, however, epidemiological studies have failed to find any association between nut or pistachio consumption and either weight gain or an increased risk of obesity ⁴⁰. Likewise, controlled feeding trials confirm that adding nuts to usual diets does not induce weight gain ⁴¹. Several studies that have evaluated pistachios’ effect on body weight as a secondary outcome have reiterated their null effect on body weight and body mass index ⁴². Only one recent study conducted in type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects has found a significant reduction of body mass index after pistachio consumption ³⁵.

These findings may be explained by the energy density of pistachios; their content in fiber, protein, and unsaturated fatty acids; and their crunchy physical structure, which may induce satiety and therefore reduce subsequent food intake ⁴³. It has been speculated that various signaling systems (ie, mechanical, nutrient, and sensory) are activated by mastication, which may modify appetitive sensations ⁴⁴. To date, only 2 studies have evaluated the satiating properties of pistachio nuts in humans. The conclusions are that the consumption of in-shell pistachios led to lower calorie intake than the consumption of kernels ⁴⁵ and that the visual cue of empty pistachio shells helped the participants to consume fewer calories during the day ⁴⁶.

In addition, the monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that nuts contain have a greater thermic effect that will induce higher thermogenic effect ⁴⁷ than saturated fatty acids, which can lead to less fat accumulation by an increase in sympathetic activity in brown adipose tissue ⁴⁸. Finally, after nut intake, fat is malabsorbed to a slight extent largely because the fat in the walls of nut cells is not completely digested in the gut ⁴⁹, suggesting that energy from nuts is poorly absorbed. Therefore, the metabolized energy contained in these types of nut is less than predicted by the Atwater general factors, which is the system used for the calculation of the available energy of foods developed from experimental studies in the early years of the 20th century ⁵⁰.

Traditional medicine uses

In traditional Iranian medicine, different parts of pistachio have been used for a long time as useful remedies for different diseases, for example, the fruit kernel of pistachio as a cardiac, stomach, hepatic, and brain tonic ⁵¹.

Table 4. Traditional medical uses of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.)

Pistacia vera	Iran	Nut shell	Tonic, sedative, and antidiarrhea	⁵²
	Iran	Fruit	Food	⁵³
	Jordan	Oil	Facial skin cleanser	⁵⁴
	Turkey	Resin	Asthma, stomach ache, and hemorrhoids	⁵⁵

[Source ⁵¹]

New trends in pistachio research

Pistachio in the prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus and other Metabolic Diseases

Research has focused widely on the beneficial effects of pistachios on such conditions as type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome ⁵⁶. However, very little information is currently available on the potential role pistachio nuts play in preventing the development of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Pistachios in cancer or neurodegenerative diseases

Vitamin E and other antioxidants provide some protection against certain forms of cancer. Therefore, foods such as pistachios, with a high content of γ-tocopherol (a form of vitamin E) and other antioxidants may reduce the risk of different types of cancer ⁵⁷. Moreover, the skin of nuts contains considerable amounts of resveratrol ⁵⁸, which has been widely studied for its role in cancer, but new research is now changing this focus to other diseases such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease ⁵⁹.

Pistachio and gut microbiota

Recent findings have shown that both pistachios and almonds have a potential prebiotic effect in healthy populations, and that the effect of the former is greater ⁶⁰. Thereby, pistachios’ microbiota modulation increased the number of butyrate-producing bacteria, identified as potentially beneficial, whereas bifidobacteria was not affected. However, new investigations should be performed to contrast and further explore these findings. Regulation of the phyla composition or the production of regulatory and protective molecules (eg, butyrate) by our gut microbiota could be mediators of the well-established beneficial properties of pistachios and other nuts.

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Honselman CS, Painter JE, Kennedy-Hagan KJ, et al. In-shell pistachio nuts reduce caloric intake compared to shelled nuts. Appetite. 2011;57(2):414–417 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21645565
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Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Is granola good for you

by Health Jade Team on May 8, 2018

What is granola

Granola is a cereal-like breakfast food and snack food consisting of rolled oats, nuts, honey or other sweeteners such as brown sugar, and sometimes puffed rice, that is usually baked until it is crisp, toasted and golden brown. During the baking process, the mixture is stirred to maintain a loose breakfast cereal consistency. Dried fruits, such as raisins and dates, and confections such as chocolate are sometimes added. Granola breakfast cereal, particularly if it includes flax seeds, is often used to improve digestion. Granola breakfast cereal is often eaten in combination with yogurt, honey, fresh fruit (such as bananas, strawberries or blueberries), milk or other forms of cereal. It also serves as a topping for various pastries, desserts or ice cream. Though granola is a good source of protein and fiber, granola can also be high in sugar, fat and calories, especially the store-bought varieties. It’s best to watch your portion sizes or create your own healthier granola to limit the amount of fat, calories and sugar in each serving.

How many calories should breakfast provide ?

A helpful rule of thumb to maintain a healthy weight is to follow the 400-600-600 kcal approach.

That means having about:

400kcal for breakfast (including any drinks and accompaniments)
600kcal for lunch (including any drinks and accompaniments)
600kcal for dinner (including any drinks and accompaniments)

That leaves you with just enough left over to enjoy a few healthy drinks and snacks throughout the day. This advice is based on a adult’s daily recommended calorie intake of 2,000kcal.

You might get about 150kcal from a 35g serving of granola (approx. only depending on make and brands). You could add a medium sliced banana and 200ml of semi-skimmed milk, which altogether would provide about 350kcals.

You need fuel in the morning, and starting the day with a filling breakfast can help you avoid reaching for a less healthy mid-morning snack to keep you going until lunch.

Granola nutrition

Granola calories depends on the added sugar and fat content of the granola breakfast cereal.

Table 1. Granola nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	418
Protein	g	10.91
Total lipid (fat)	g	14.55
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	63.64
Fiber, total dietary	g	5.5
Sugars, total	g	23.64
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	73
Iron, Fe	mg	2.86
Sodium, Na	mg	227
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0

Ingredients: Oats, Maple syrup, Brown sugar, Canola oil, Vanilla, Sea salt, Cinnamon.
Manufacturer: Good Life

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 2. Granola nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	cup 55 g	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Energy	kcal	240	436
Protein	g	6	10.91
Total lipid (fat)	g	7	12.73
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	39	70.91
Fiber, total dietary	g	4	7.3
Sugars, total	g	12	21.82
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	20	36
Iron, Fe	mg	1.31	2.38
Potassium, K	mg	140	255
Sodium, Na	mg	70	127
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	1.001	1.82
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	3.498	6.36
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	2.502	4.55
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0	0
Cholesterol	mg	0	0

Ingredients: Whole grain rolled oats, cane sugar, canola oil, rice flour, flax seed, honey, flax seed meal, freeze dried blueberries, salt, natural flavor, barley malt syrup, mixed tocopherols (to maintain freshness).
Manufacturer: Post

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 3. Granola bars (plain and hard) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	3.9
Energy	kcal	471
Energy	kJ	1972
Protein	g	10.1
Total lipid (fat)	g	19.8
Ash	g	1.9
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	64.4
Fiber, total dietary	g	5.3
Sugars, total	g	28.57
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	61
Iron, Fe	mg	2.95
Magnesium, Mg	mg	97
Phosphorus, P	mg	277
Potassium, K	mg	336
Sodium, Na	mg	294
Zinc, Zn	mg	2.03
Copper, Cu	mg	0.392
Manganese, Mn	mg	1.777
Selenium, Se	µg	16.2
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0.9
Thiamin	mg	0.264
Riboflavin	mg	0.119
Niacin	mg	1.581
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.813
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.085
Folate, total	µg	23
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	23
Folate, DFE	µg	23
Choline, total	mg	22
Betaine	mg	6.9
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	2
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	17
Carotene, alpha	µg	6
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	33
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	189
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	2.09
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	14.6
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	2.37
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
08:00:00	g	0
10:00:00	g	0
12:00:00	g	0.01
14:00:00	g	0.01
16:00:00	g	1.54
18:00:00	g	0.76
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	4.38
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.01
18:1 undifferentiated	g	4.37
20:01:00	g	0.13
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	12.05
18:2 undifferentiated	g	11.99
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.06
18:04:00	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.177
Threonine	g	0.264
Isoleucine	g	0.352
Leucine	g	0.724
Lysine	g	0.4
Methionine	g	0.177
Cystine	g	0.304
Phenylalanine	g	0.479
Tyrosine	g	0.352
Valine	g	0.508
Arginine	g	0.674
Histidine	g	0.216
Alanine	g	0.46
Aspartic acid	g	0.83
Glutamic acid	g	1.975
Glycine	g	0.499
Proline	g	0.518
Serine	g	0.47
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0
Isoflavones
Daidzein	mg	0.05
Genistein	mg	0.07
Total isoflavones	mg	0.13
Biochanin A	mg	0
Formononetin	mg	0
Coumestrol	mg	0.01

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 4. Granola bars (plain and soft and uncoated) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	bar (1 oz) 28 g
Approximates
Water	g	6.4	1.79
Energy	kcal	443	124
Protein	g	7.4	2.07
Total lipid (fat)	g	17.2	4.82
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	67.3	18.84
Fiber, total dietary	g	4.6	1.3
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	105	29
Iron, Fe	mg	2.56	0.72
Magnesium, Mg	mg	74	21
Phosphorus, P	mg	230	64
Potassium, K	mg	325	91
Sodium, Na	mg	278	78
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.5	0.42
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0
Thiamin	mg	0.295	0.083
Riboflavin	mg	0.165	0.046
Niacin	mg	0.515	0.144
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.1	0.028
Folate, DFE	µg	24	7
Vitamin B-12	µg	0.39	0.11
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	7.25	2.03
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	3.82	1.07
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	5.32	1.49
Cholesterol	mg	0	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 5. Granola bars (soft, uncoated and raisin) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	bar (1.5 oz) 43 g	bar (1 oz) 28 g
Approximates
Water	g	6.4	2.75	1.79
Energy	kcal	448	193	125
Protein	g	7.6	3.27	2.13
Total lipid (fat)	g	17.8	7.65	4.98
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	66.4	28.55	18.59
Fiber, total dietary	g	4.2	1.8	1.2
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	101	43	28
Iron, Fe	mg	2.44	1.05	0.68
Magnesium, Mg	mg	72	31	20
Phosphorus, P	mg	220	95	62
Potassium, K	mg	362	156	101
Sodium, Na	mg	282	121	79
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.3	0.56	0.36
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0	0
Thiamin	mg	0.231	0.099	0.065
Riboflavin	mg	0.163	0.07	0.046
Niacin	mg	1.101	0.473	0.308
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.103	0.044	0.029
Folate, DFE	µg	21	9	6
Vitamin B-12	µg	0.18	0.08	0.05
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0	0	0
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	9.57	4.115	2.68
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	2.84	1.221	0.795
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	3.21	1.38	0.899
Cholesterol	mg	0	0	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 6. Granola bars (hard and chocolate chip) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	oz 28.35 g	bar 24 g
Approximates
Water	g	2.4	0.68	0.58
Energy	kcal	438	124	105
Protein	g	7.3	2.07	1.75
Total lipid (fat)	g	16.3	4.62	3.91
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	72.1	20.44	17.3
Fiber, total dietary	g	4.4	1.2	1.1
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	77	22	18
Iron, Fe	mg	3.05	0.86	0.73
Magnesium, Mg	mg	72	20	17
Phosphorus, P	mg	204	58	49
Potassium, K	mg	251	71	60
Sodium, Na	mg	344	98	83
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.93	0.55	0.46
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0.1	0	0
Thiamin	mg	0.18	0.051	0.043
Riboflavin	mg	0.1	0.028	0.024
Niacin	mg	0.555	0.157	0.133
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.058	0.016	0.014
Folate, DFE	µg	13	4	3
Vitamin B-12	µg	0.01	0	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	2	1	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	42	12	10
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	11.41	3.235	2.738
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	2.63	0.746	0.631
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	1.27	0.36	0.305
Cholesterol	mg	0	0	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 7. Granola bars (hard and almond) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	oz 28.35 g	bar 24 g
Approximates
Water	g	3.1	0.88	0.74
Energy	kcal	495	140	119
Protein	g	7.7	2.18	1.85
Total lipid (fat)	g	25.5	7.23	6.12
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	62	17.58	14.88
Fiber, total dietary	g	4.8	1.4	1.2
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	32	9	8
Iron, Fe	mg	2.5	0.71	0.6
Magnesium, Mg	mg	81	23	19
Phosphorus, P	mg	228	65	55
Potassium, K	mg	273	77	66
Sodium, Na	mg	256	73	61
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.58	0.45	0.38
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0	0
Thiamin	mg	0.28	0.079	0.067
Riboflavin	mg	0.07	0.02	0.017
Niacin	mg	0.61	0.173	0.146
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.047	0.013	0.011
Folate, DFE	µg	12	3	3
Vitamin B-12	µg	0	0	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	2	1	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	37	10	9
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	12.51	3.547	3.002
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	7.74	2.194	1.858
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	3.76	1.066	0.902
Cholesterol	mg	0	0	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 8. Granola bars (non-fat and fruit filled) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	13.7
Energy	kcal	342
Protein	g	5.9
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.9
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	77.6
Fiber, total dietary	g	7.4
Sugars, total	g	45.24
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	3
Iron, Fe	mg	4
Magnesium, Mg	mg	50
Phosphorus, P	mg	122
Potassium, K	mg	220
Sodium, Na	mg	16
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.42
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	1.7
Thiamin	mg	0.03
Riboflavin	mg	0.07
Niacin	mg	0.4
Vitamin B-6	mg	1.59
Folate, DFE	µg	527
Vitamin B-12	µg	0.18
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	1
Vitamin A, IU	IU	28
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	0.22
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	1.3
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.2
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.24
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.35
Cholesterol	mg	0
Other
Caffeine	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 9. Granola bars (uncoated, nut and raisin) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	bar (1 oz) 28 g
Approximates
Water	g	6.1	1.71
Energy	kcal	454	127
Protein	g	8	2.24
Total lipid (fat)	g	20.4	5.71
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	63.6	17.81
Fiber, total dietary	g	5.6	1.6
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	84	24
Iron, Fe	mg	2.18	0.61
Magnesium, Mg	mg	91	25
Phosphorus, P	mg	241	67
Potassium, K	mg	392	110
Sodium, Na	mg	254	71
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.6	0.45
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0	0
Thiamin	mg	0.19	0.053
Riboflavin	mg	0.19	0.053
Niacin	mg	2.61	0.731
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.12	0.034
Folate, DFE	µg	30	8
Vitamin B-12	µg	0.24	0.07
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	2	1
Vitamin A, IU	IU	41	11
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	9.54	2.671
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	4.22	1.182
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	5.52	1.546
Cholesterol	mg	0	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 10. Granola bars (hard and peanut butter) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	oz 28.35 g	bar 24 g
Approximates
Water	g	2.3	0.65	0.55
Energy	kcal	483	137	116
Protein	g	9.8	2.78	2.35
Total lipid (fat)	g	23.8	6.75	5.71
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	62.3	17.66	14.95
Fiber, total dietary	g	2.9	0.8	0.7
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	41	12	10
Iron, Fe	mg	2.4	0.68	0.58
Magnesium, Mg	mg	55	16	13
Phosphorus, P	mg	139	39	33
Potassium, K	mg	291	82	70
Sodium, Na	mg	283	80	68
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.25	0.35	0.3
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0.2	0.1	0
Thiamin	mg	0.21	0.06	0.05
Riboflavin	mg	0.09	0.026	0.022
Niacin	mg	1.97	0.558	0.473
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.096	0.027	0.023
Folate, DFE	µg	18	5	4
Vitamin B-12	µg	0	0	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	1	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	16	5	4
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	3.2	0.907	0.768
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	7	1.985	1.68
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	12.08	3.425	2.899
Cholesterol	mg	0	0	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

Table 11. Granola bars (coconut and chocolate coated) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g	oz 28.35 g
Approximates
Water	g	6.1	1.73
Energy	kcal	531	151
Protein	g	5.2	1.47
Total lipid (fat)	g	32.2	9.13
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	55.2	15.65
Fiber, total dietary	g	6.2	1.8
Sugars, total	g	34.27	9.72
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	42	12
Iron, Fe	mg	1.75	0.5
Magnesium, Mg	mg	56	16
Phosphorus, P	mg	154	44
Potassium, K	mg	254	72
Sodium, Na	mg	152	43
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.17	0.33
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0.5	0.1
Thiamin	mg	0.14	0.04
Riboflavin	mg	0.08	0.023
Niacin	mg	0.42	0.119
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.12	0.034
Folate, DFE	µg	9	3
Vitamin B-12	µg	0.07	0.02
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	0	0
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	0.3	0.09
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0	0
Vitamin D	IU	0	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	1.4	0.4
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	22.72	6.441
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	4.97	1.409
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	3.1	0.879
Cholesterol	mg	0	0
Other
Caffeine	mg	3	1

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ¹]

How to find the best granola bars

Read the Nutrition Labels on the granola bars packaging.

Nutrition labels can help you choose between granola bars and keep a check on the amount of granola you’re eating that are high in fat, salt and added sugars.

Most pre-packed foods have a nutrition label on the back or side of the packaging. These labels include information on energy in kilojoules (kJ) and kilocalories (kcal), usually referred to as calories.

They also include information on fat, saturates (saturated fat), carbohydrate, sugars, protein and salt. All nutrition information is provided per 100 grams and sometimes per portion of the food.

Supermarkets and food manufacturers now highlight the energy, fat, saturated fat, sugars and salt content on the front of the packaging, alongside the reference intake for each of these.

You can use nutrition labels to help you choose the best granola bar.

How do I know if granola or a granola bar is high in fat, saturated fat, sugar or salt ?

There are guidelines to tell you if a granola cereal or granola bar is high in fat, saturated fat, salt or sugar, or not. These are:

Total fat

High: more than 17.5g of fat per 100g
Low: 3g of fat or less per 100g

Saturated fat

High: more than 5g of saturated fat per 100g
Low: 1.5g of saturated fat or less per 100g

Sugars

High: more than 22.5g of total sugars per 100g
Moderate: between 5g to 22.5 g of total sugars per 100g
Low: 5g of total sugars or less per 100g

Salt

High: more than 1.5g of salt per 100g (or 0.6g sodium)
Low: 0.3g of salt or less per 100g (or 0.1g sodium)

For example, if you are trying to cut down on saturated fat, limit your consumption of foods that have more than 5g of saturated fat per 100g.

If you’re trying to cut down on sugar, you should avoid foods that have more than 22.5g of sugars per 100g.

Some nutrition labels on the back or side of packaging also provide information about reference intakes.

Sugar, fat and salt levels

You can use the per 100g information on the nutrition label to identify granola or granola bars that are:

High in sugar, fat or salt

high in sugar: more than 22.5g of total sugars per 100g
high in fat: more than 17.5g of fat per 100g
high in salt: more than 1.5g of salt per 100g

Low in sugar, fat or salt

low in sugar: 5g of total sugars or less per 100g
low in fat: 3g of saturated fat or less per 100g
low in salt: 0.3g of salt or less per 100g

Reference intakes explained

You’ll see reference intakes referred to on food labels. They show you the maximum amount of calories and nutrients you should eat in a day.

Nutrition labels can also provide information on how a particular food or drink product fits into your daily diet.
Reference intakes are guidelines about the approximate amount of particular nutrients and energy required for a healthy diet.

Daily reference intakes for the average adult aged 19 to 64 are:

Energy: 8,400 kJ/2,000kcal (for an average adult male)
Total fat: less than 70g
Saturates: less than 20g
Carbohydrate: at least 260g
Total sugars: 90g
Protein: 50g
Fiber: 35g
Salt: less than 2.3g

The reference intake for total sugars includes sugars from milk and fruit, as well as added sugar.

Reference intakes aren’t meant to be targets. They just give you a rough idea of how much energy you should be eating each day and how much fat, sugar, salt and so on.

Unless the label says otherwise, reference intakes are based on an average-sized adult doing an average amount of physical activity.

This is to reduce the risk of people with lower energy requirements eating too much, and to make sure information on labels is clear and consistent.

Where to find reference intakes on food packs

Most of the big supermarkets and many food manufacturers also display nutritional information on the front of pre-packed food. This is very useful when you want to compare different food products at a glance.

If you look closely at food packaging, you’ll see that it usually tells you what percentage of your daily reference intakes each portion of that food contains.

Front-of-pack labels, such as the label in the above image, usually give a quick guide to:

energy
fat content
saturated fat content
sugars content
salt content

These labels provide information on the number of grams of fat, saturated fat, sugars and salt, and the amount of energy (in kJ and kcal) in a serving or portion of the food.

But be aware that the manufacturer’s idea of a portion may be different from yours.

Some front-of-pack nutrition labels also provide information about reference intakes.

Color-coded nutritional information, as shown in Figure 2. below, tells you at a glance if the food has high, medium or low amounts of fat, saturated fat, sugars and salt.

Red means high
Amber means medium
Green means low

In short, the more green on the label, the healthier the choice. If you buy a food that has all or mostly green on the label, you know straight away that it’s a healthier choice.

Amber means neither high nor low, so you can eat foods with all or mostly amber on the label most of the time.

But any red on the label means the food is high in fat, saturated fat, salt or sugars, and these are the foods we should cut down on. Try to eat these foods less often and in small amounts.

Figure 1. Reference intakes on food packs

For example, the label above, taken from a box of pizza, shows that per half (1/2) slice of pizza will provide you with 4.7g of sugars, which is 6% of your daily reference intake for sugars.

The red color shows you that the pizza are high in saturated fat and salt.

Each pizza also contains 10.3g of saturated fat, which is 52% of your reference intake for saturated fat.

The amber color tells you that the pizza slices contain a medium amount (20.3g per 100 g of pizza) of fat.

Green means a food is low in a particular nutrient. These pizza slices, for example, are low in added sugars.

Ingredients list

Most pre-packed food products also have a list of ingredients on the packaging or an attached label. The ingredients list can also help you work out how healthy the product is.

Ingredients are listed in order of weight, so the main ingredients in the packaged food always come first. That means that if the first few ingredients are high-fat ingredients, such as cream, butter or oil, then the food in question is a high-fat food.

Figure 2. Breakfast cereal ingredients list (Oatmeal Crisp cereal)

Is granola healthy?

The health benefits of granola in general depends on the amount of oats and whole grains in the granola breakfast cereal or granola bars in addition to the amount of added sugar (sugars content), fat (saturated fat content) and salt (salt content).Consumption of oats or oat based products by individuals with various metabolic disease risk factors (e.g., hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and diabetes) and in different ethnic groups, has been shown to mediate an appreciable normalization of plasma cholesterol levels ². The cholesterol lowering activity of oats is usually attributed to its ability to reduce intestinal absorption of cholesterol and/or inhibit the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids by increasing carriage of cholesterol and/or bile acids into the colon and facilitating their excretion in feces ³. Whole grain oats contain a number of potentially bioactive components capable of modulating cholesterol metabolism in mammals, including unsaturated fatty acids, fibers, such as beta-glucan, arabinoxylans, arabinogalactans, and resistant starch. Some of these polysaccharides can form viscous gels in aqueous solutions, and/or directly bind cholesterol or bile acids, while all are fermentable by the gut microbiota into short chain fatty acids (SCFA).

Oats, and whole grain oat Granola also contains polyphenolic compounds and phytoeostrogens which may also modulate the gut microbiota and impact on host metabolic parameters ⁴. However, it is the gel forming nature of beta-glucans which is most commonly attributed to the cholesterol lowering effect of oats. Tiwari and Cummins ⁵ performed a meta-analysis on 126 studies and concluded that there was a significant dose-dependent inverse relationship between beta-glucan from oats and barley and blood total cholesterol, LDL “bad” cholesterol, and triacylglycerol concentrations with 3 g/day beta-glucan being sufficient to lower blood total cholesterol by −0.30 mmol/L ⁵. There is significant body of evidence that ingestion of oats, and oat derived fractions, most notably, β-glucan, at 3 g/day, is associated with a significant reduction in blood total cholesterol and LDL “bad” cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic groups ⁶. Although, the bile acid and possibly cholesterol binding abilities of β-glucans have been suggested to be responsible for the hypocholesterolemic effects in vivo, other mechanisms may also be involved, including those linked to the human gut microbiota which have not been addressed to date. While the ability of oats and beta-glucans to increase excretion of bile acids and cholesterol in feces appears to be well established, the underlying mechanism still remains to be fully elucidated. Although the gel forming nature of beta-glucans reducing bile acid/cholesterol absorption is the most commonly proposed mechanism, recent studies with probiotic microorganisms raise the possibility of bile salt hydrolase activity as another possible mechanism by which oats and fermentable fibers can lower plasma cholesterol ⁷. Studies on non-gel forming prebiotic fibers, which modulate gut bacteria and increase bile salt hydrolase active lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, support the hypothesis that an increased bile salt hydrolase activity due to gut bacterial modulation could reduce plasma cholesterol ⁸.

What is the healthiest granola breakfast cereal

Try looking at the nutrition label and compare brands so you opt for the healthier version.

For a healthier option, choose granola breakfast cereals that contain wholegrains and are lower in sugar, fat and salt.

Whole grains consist of the intact, ground, cracked or flaked fruit of the grains where the primary components (bran, germ, endosperm) are retained within their natural ratio ⁹. The putative health enhancing properties of whole grains are attributed to the presence of nutrients and bioactive compounds which are mainly found in the bran and germ ¹⁰. Consistent observational evidence associates habitual consumption of wholegrain foods with a wide range of positive impacts on health such as a reduced risk of diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease and cancer ¹¹.

Examples include:

Wholewheat cereal biscuits
Shredded wholegrain pillows
Oats
Barley

Table 12. Grains included in the HEALTHGRAIN whole grain definition

Cereal	Scientific name
Cereals
Wheat, including spelt, emmer, faro, einkorn, khorasan wheat¹, durums	Triticum spp.
Rice, including brown, black, red, and other coloured rice varieties	Oryza spp.
Barley, including hull-less or naked barley but not pearled	Hordeum spp.
Maize (corn)	Zea mays
Rye	Secale spp.
Oats, including hull-less or naked oats	Avena spp.
Millets	Brachiaria spp.; Pennisetum spp.; Panicum spp.; Setaria spp.; Paspalum spp.; Eleusine spp.; Echinochloa spp.
Sorghum	Sorghum spp.
Teff (tef)	Eragrotis spp.
Triticale	Triticale
Canary seed	Phalaris canariensis^*
Job’s tears	Coizlacryma-jobi
Fonio, black fonio, Asian millet	Digitaria spp.
Pseudocereals
Amaranth	Amaranthus caudatus
Buckwheat tartar buckwheat	Fagopyrum spp.
Quinoa	Chenopodium quinoa Willd. is generally considered to be a single species within the Chenopodioideae
Wild rice^**	Zizania aquatica

Notes:

¹Khorasan wheat – also known as Kamut (registered trademark).

^*In the first version of the definition document two scientific names were erroneously mentioned: Phalaris arundinacea and P. canariensis. The former one is a noxious weed.

^**In the first version, wild rice was – incorrectly – listed as a cereal and not as a pseudocereal.

[Source ¹²]

Wholegrains contain fiber and B vitamins, among other nutrients. Fiber helps keep your digestive systems healthy. Research suggests a diet high in fiber may help reduce the risk of developing heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

Avoid always going for the same brand, as manufacturers regularly modify their recipes.

Oats, barley, or psyllium-based cereals can help lower cholesterol concentrations (excellent evidence and can be trusted to guide practice), and high-fiber, wheat-based cereals can improve bowel function ¹³.

Serving cereal with milk or yogurt

Having breakfast cereal is a good opportunity to add calcium to the diet if you serve it with milk or yogurt. Go for semi-skimmed, 1% or skimmed milk, or lower-fat yogurt.

Milk and yogurt are good sources of calcium and protein. Alternatives to cow’s milk include fortified soya, rice and oat drinks.

Adding fruit to cereal

Having cereal is also a good opportunity to get some fruit in the diet. Raisins, dried apricots, bananas and strawberries are popular choices and can be added to any cereal, depending on your tastes.

Adding fruit to cereals is a great way to get kids to eat more fruit. It also helps them enjoy less sugary cereals, as you get sweetness from the fruit.

I don’t have time to sit down for breakfast

It’s a sign of the times that people are increasingly abandoning breakfast cereals, one of the earliest convenience foods, for more convenient “on-the-go” options, such as a breakfast muffin and a latte.

If you’re short on time in the morning, how about setting the table the night before ? You could also grab a pot of porridge on your way to work or have your cereal when you get in.

Cereals are still one of the best value breakfasts out there. A bowl of fortified breakfast cereal with milk gives you more nutrients for your penny when compared with most on-the-go breakfast options.

You could try:

Muesli, fresh fruit and low-fat yogurt – fruit added to your muesli counts towards your daily requirements. Low-fat yogurt provides calcium and protein, and is low in fat, but watch out for the sugar content. Go for muesli with no added sugar.
Porridge with mashed banana and dried blueberries – put oats and a handful of dried blueberries in a bowl and add semi-skimmed milk. Heat in the microwave for 3-4 minutes, stirring every so often. When cooked, stir in the mashed banana. The mashed banana is a healthier substitute for sugar or honey. For best results, use a very ripe banana.
Overnight oats – combine oats and apple juice and let it sit overnight in the fridge. In the morning, add low-fat yogurt, honey to taste, and fresh fruit such as berries.
Quick porridge – making porridge is easier than you think: combine 50g of rolled or instant oats with 200ml (or more for runny porridge) of semi-skimmed milk in a bowl and microwave on full power for two minutes. Top with dried fruit or nuts.
Baked beans (low sugar & low salt variety) on wholemeal toast – not only are they naturally low in fat, baked beans are also packed with fibre and protein, making them a vegetarian source of protein. Look out for reduced salt and sugar ranges.
Banana bagel sandwich – mash a ripe banana and serve it between two halves of a toasted (preferably wholemeal) bagel. Mashing instead of slicing the banana gives the filling a creamier texture, meaning you won’t need low-fat spread.
One-minute omelette – combine one beaten egg, a few spinach leaves and some chopped lean roast ham in a bowl. Microwave on full power for a minute or until the egg is set.
Baked eggs – put an egg (with yolk unbroken) and some crème fraîche in a ramekin. Put the ramekin in a baking dish and fill with hot tap water so it comes 3/4 of the way to the top of the ramekin. Bake for 15 minutes or until the egg yolk is set to your liking.

References

United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Legacy Release. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list
Randomized controlled trial of oatmeal consumption versus noodle consumption on blood lipids of urban Chinese adults with hypercholesterolemia. Zhang J, Li L, Song P, Wang C, Man Q, Meng L, Cai J, Kurilich A. Nutr J. 2012 Aug 6; 11():54. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3489577/
Whole grain cereals: functional components and health benefits. Borneo R, León AE. Food Funct. 2012 Feb; 3(2):110-9 http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2012/FO/C1FO10165J#!divAbstract
Bioactivity of oats as it relates to cardiovascular disease. Ryan D, Kendall M, Robards K. Nutr Res Rev. 2007 Dec; 20(2):147-62. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19079867/
Meta-analysis of the effect of β-glucan intake on blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Tiwari U, Cummins E. Nutrition. 2011 Oct; 27(10):1008-16. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21470820/
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). (2010). Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to oat beta glucan and lowering blood cholesterol and reduced risk of (coronary) heart disease pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA J. 8:1885 10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1885
Cholesterol lowering and inhibition of sterol absorption by Lactobacillus reuteri NCIMB 30242: a randomized controlled trial. Jones ML, Martoni CJ, Prakash S. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2012 Nov; 66(11):1234-41. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22990854/
Purification and characterization of three different types of bile salt hydrolases from Bifidobacterium strains. Kim GB, Yi SH, Lee BH. J Dairy Sci. 2004 Feb; 87(2):258-66. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14762068/
The HEALTHGRAIN definition of ‘whole grain’. van der Kamp JW, Poutanen K, Seal CJ, Richardson DP. Food Nutr Res. 2014; 58 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3915794/
Slavin J., Tucker M., Harriman C., Jonnalagadda S.S. Whole grains: Definition, dietary recommendations, and health benefits. Cereal Foods World. 2013;58:191–198. doi: 10.1094/CFW-58-4-0191
Whole-grain foods and chronic disease: evidence from epidemiological and intervention studies. Seal CJ, Brownlee IA. Proc Nutr Soc. 2015 Aug; 74(3):313-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26062574/
Van der Kamp JW, Poutanen K, Seal CJ, Richardson DP. The HEALTHGRAIN definition of “whole grain.” Food & Nutrition Research. 2014;58:10.3402/fnr.v58.22100. doi:10.3402/fnr.v58.22100. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3915794/
Williams PG. The Benefits of Breakfast Cereal Consumption: A Systematic Review of the Evidence Base. Advances in Nutrition. 2014;5(5):636S-673S. doi:10.3945/an.114.006247. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4188247/

Diet, Food & Fitness Foods

Bulgur

by Health Jade Team on May 7, 2018

What is bulgur

When wheat (either Triticum aestivum vulgare, Triticum turgidum durum or Triticum spelta) kernels are cleaned, boiled (cooked), dried, dehulled, ground by a mill, optionally polished, then sorted by size, the result is bulgur ¹. This wheat product is sometimes referred to as “Middle Eastern pasta” for its versatility as a base for all sorts of dishes. Bulgur is sometimes confused with cracked wheat, which is crushed wheat grain that has not been boiled (cooked). Instead, bulgur is cracked wheat that has been partially cooked. Bulgur is ranked among the most nutritious food resource by the American Science Center ¹. Bulgur is an excellent food source due to its low cost, storability (long shelf-life), ease of preparation, and high nutritional value (see bulgur nutrition Tables 1 and 2 below), which resists mold contamination and attack by insects and mites ². Bulgur is also stored for humans nutrition purposes in some countries because of its resistance to absorbance of radiation (bulgur is one of the important wheat products in the U.S.A., and it is included in the special list of food rations in nuclear fallout shelters, recently), prevent intestinal cancer risk and consumable alone due to its fiber content (formation of fibrous structure, lack of phytic acid due to the processing properties) and good nutritional composition ³. Bulgur production is 2.5 times greater than pasta and bulgur is consumed at 12 kg per person annually in Turkey (in the East and South Parts of Turkey, 25 kg/person; also, in Syria, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Lebanon, Arabia i.e. Middle East countries, 30–35 kg/person) ⁴. In addition, bulgur is produced in USA, France, Sweden, Greece, Syria and Lebanon. Bulgur is recognized as a whole grain by the United States Department of Agriculture.

Because bulgur has been precooked and dried, it needs to be boiled for only about 10 minutes to be ready to eat – about the same time as dry pasta. Or you can simply add boiling water or broth to bulgur (about 1 ¾ to 2 cups liquid per cup of bulgur) and let it soak for about 20-25 minutes in a covered pot. This makes bulgur an extremely nutritious fast food for quick side dishes, pilafs or salads. Perhaps bulgur’s best-known traditional use is in the minty grain and vegetable salad known as tabbouleh.

Visual appearance, especially color, is the most important characteristic of foods and determines the choice or rejection of the product by the consumer ⁵. Bright yellow color is an important demand by consumers for bulgur ⁶. Color of bulgur is mainly due to natural pigments (carotenoids) that are present at different levels in wheat. Therefore, bulgur producers try many ways to improve the attractiveness of bulgur. In order to improve the color of bulgur and meet the consumer demands, bulgur producers first tried to add some dyes even if they were not allowed. Nowadays, there is a tendency to use natural additives. In addition, in industry, a mechanical kneading operation (it is called as polishing in industry) was widely used after drying and tempering to improve the color of bulgur. Squeezing the bulgur to provide some friction energy after tempering (increasing moisture content to a certain level) the brightness/yellowness of bulgur during polishing operation. Tempering is an important unit operation which the moisture content of bulgur is increased. Spray tempering before the mechanical polishing operation is the current method used mostly in bulgur industry. In this method, water is directly sprayed onto bulgur. After water addition, bulgur samples are rested to absorb it for 25–30 min. For the effectiveness of polishing operation, tempering is vital for cereal products. The literature about the effects of tempering on the color of final product are scanty. Furthermore, the relationship between total carotenoid content of the bulgur and yellowness, no documentation has been found during the literature review.

Besides tempering, sun drying is an important operation in traditional bulgur production. Sun-light is used to decrease the moisture content from 45 to 10 % (w.b.) by spreading the bulgur onto a clear surface for 8–10 hours. Traditionally, this method is believed to increase the yellowness of bulgur. Sun drying has some disadvantages like; non-hygienic product, lack of control over sun, difficulties to control the operation parameters, uneven drying, loss of product and non-standardized product. Imre ⁷ and Hayta ⁸ stated that the open-air sun drying may cause quality degradation and pollution infestation of the product. However according to the industrial experiences, sun dried bulgur has better yellow color than artificially dried bulgur. There is no study available about the effects of sun drying or UV-light on color bulgur.

Bulgur uses

Bulgur can be used in pilafs, soups, bakery goods, or as stuffing. In breads, it adds a whole grain component. It is a main ingredient in tabbouleh salad and kibbeh. It is often a substitute for rice or couscous. In Indian and Pakistani cuisine, bulgur is used as a cereal often to make a porridge with milk and sugar or a savory porridge with vegetables and spices. In the United States, it is often used as a side dish, much like pasta or rice. In meals, bulgur is often mistaken for rice because it can be prepared in a similar manner, although it has a texture more like couscous than rice.

How to be sure you’re getting whole bulgur: Because bulgur is made by cooking the entire wheat kernel, drying it and chopping it in smaller pieces, it remains a whole grain.

What is bulgur wheat

Bulgur is not a variety of wheat, bulgur is actually a traditional way of processing wheat. To make bulgur, the wheat kernels are cooked, then dried, then broken up into smaller pieces.

Is bulgur wheat gluten free?

No. Bulgur wheat contains gluten.

Figure 1. Bulgur grain

Figure 2. Triticum turgidum durum wheat (pasta wheat)

Figure 3. Triticum aestivum vulgare wheat (common wheat or bread wheat and it’s the wheat for most wheat-based foods)

Figure 4. Triticum spelta wheat (spelt is an ancient wheat)

Figure 5. Whole grain

Whole grain

Bulgur nutrition

Bulgur is classified as a wholegrain and it is a good source of dietary fiber ~ 12.5 gram per 100 gram dry bulgur. In their natural state growing in the ﬁelds, whole grains are the entire seed of a plant. A grain is considered to be a whole grain as long as all three original parts — the bran, germ, and endosperm — are still present in the same proportions as when the grain was growing in the ﬁelds ⁹. Whole grains represent the intact, ground, cracked, or flaked kernel of grains for which the starchy endosperm, germ, and bran are found in the same relative portions as they exist in the intact grain even after separation and reconstitution of the grain ¹⁰. Whole grains provide both nutrients and non-nutrients, which confer numerous health benefits ¹¹. Dietary fiber from whole grains, as part of an overall healthy diet, may help improve blood cholesterol levels, and lower risk of heart disease, stroke, obesity and type 2 diabetes ¹². Dietary fiber can make you feel full, so you may eat fewer calories. Including bulgur or other whole grains in your diet plan may help you reach or manage a healthy weight. Whole grain intake is inversely associated with risk of type 2 diabetes, and this association is stronger for bran than for germ ¹². Findings from prospective cohort studies consistently support increasing whole grain consumption for the prevention of type 2 diabetes.

The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans ¹⁰ recommend consuming at least half of the daily grain servings as whole grains to reduce chronic disease risk. Similarly, the World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research cancer prevention guidelines recommend eating relatively unprocessed cereals with every meal and limiting the intake of refined starchy foods ¹³. Nevertheless, whole grain intakes fall short of dietary guidance. Data from a nationally representative sample suggest that less than 10% of American adults consume the recommended 3 or more whole-grain servings per day ¹⁴, with no significant increases in whole-grain intakes over the past 10 years ¹⁵.

Evidence on whole grains and cereal fiber has been previously reviewed in relation to obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease ¹⁶. A recent review showed that high intakes of cereal fiber and whole grains had a protective impact on the risk of these chronic diseases ¹⁶. However, for cancer, previous reviews on the association between whole grains and risk of first incident cancer have been limited to evidence from case–control studies and do not report risk estimates for cereal fiber ¹⁷.

A review of case–control evidence suggests that whole grains protect against various cancers ¹⁸. Cancer is a major public health burden in the United States, with high prevalence and incidence rates ¹⁹. The World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research claim that altering diet may play a pivotal role in reducing cancer incidence ¹³. A protective impact of whole grains on cancer risk is biologically plausible. Whole grains are a rich source of antioxidants, vitamins, trace minerals, phytate, phenolic acids, lignans, and phytoestrogens with anticarcinogenic properties. Whole grains are also a major source of fiber. Due to the hypothesized association between dietary fiber and cancer ²⁰, it is important to consider whether cereal fiber alone or whole grains, as a collective package of measured and unmeasured dietary constituents, are associated with cancer risk. However, most of the studies that reported lack of an association evaluated whole grains and cereal fiber in relation to lymphoma, female, and prostate cancers as an outcome. In contrast, approximately half of the studies evaluating gastrointestinal cancers and the 2 studies on renal cell carcinoma and head and neck cancers were suggestive of a protective impact of whole grains and cereal fiber on cancer risk, but evidence was limited to draw firm conclusions ²¹. Currently, the American Institute for Cancer Research and the American Cancer Society cancer prevention guidelines recommend choosing whole grains instead of refined grains as part of a comprehensive lifestyle approach to reduce cancer incidence ²². Based on the results of this qualitative review ²¹, a potential protective impact of whole grains and cereal fiber is limited to certain types of cancer, including head and neck cancers, renal cell carcinoma, and gastrointestinal cancers, which collectively constitute approximately a quarter of incident cancers ²³. These data provide further support for recommendations to increase consumption of whole grains including whole wheat, bulgur, whole oats, oatmeal, whole grain corn and popcorn, brown and wild rice, whole rye, whole grain barley, buckwheat, triticale, millet, quinoa, and sorghum ²⁴. Therefore, at an individual and population level, the consumption of whole-grain foods should be encouraged, primarily due to their protective impact on cardiovascular disease and diabetes, but also due to their potential role in reducing risk of these cancers, especially among high-risk individuals.

Table 1. Bulgur wheat (dry) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	9
Energy	kcal	342
Energy	kJ	1431
Protein	g	12.29
Total lipid (fat)	g	1.33
Ash	g	1.51
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	75.87
Fiber, total dietary	g	12.5
Sugars, total	g	0.41
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	35
Iron, Fe	mg	2.46
Magnesium, Mg	mg	164
Phosphorus, P	mg	300
Potassium, K	mg	410
Sodium, Na	mg	17
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.93
Copper, Cu	mg	0.335
Manganese, Mn	mg	3.048
Selenium, Se	µg	2.3
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.232
Riboflavin	mg	0.115
Niacin	mg	5.114
Pantothenic acid	mg	1.045
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.342
Folate, total	µg	27
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	27
Folate, DFE	µg	27
Choline, total	mg	28.1
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	5
Carotene, alpha	µg	0
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	9
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	220
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	0.06
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	1.9
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.232
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
08:00:00	g	0.013
10:00:00	g	0
12:00:00	g	0
14:00:00	g	0.001
16:00:00	g	0.203
18:00:00	g	0.011
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.173
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.007
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.166
20:01:00	g	0
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.541
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.518
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.023
18:04:00	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.19
Threonine	g	0.354
Isoleucine	g	0.455
Leucine	g	0.83
Lysine	g	0.339
Methionine	g	0.19
Cystine	g	0.285
Phenylalanine	g	0.58
Tyrosine	g	0.358
Valine	g	0.554
Arginine	g	0.575
Histidine	g	0.285
Alanine	g	0.436
Aspartic acid	g	0.63
Glutamic acid	g	3.878
Glycine	g	0.495
Proline	g	1.275
Serine	g	0.58
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ²⁵]

Table 2. Bulgur wheat (cooked) nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	77.76
Energy	kcal	83
Energy	kJ	347
Protein	g	3.08
Total lipid (fat)	g	0.24
Ash	g	0.34
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	18.58
Fiber, total dietary	g	4.5
Sugars, total	g	0.1
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	10
Iron, Fe	mg	0.96
Magnesium, Mg	mg	32
Phosphorus, P	mg	40
Potassium, K	mg	68
Sodium, Na	mg	5
Zinc, Zn	mg	0.57
Copper, Cu	mg	0.075
Manganese, Mn	mg	0.609
Selenium, Se	µg	0.6
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.057
Riboflavin	mg	0.028
Niacin	mg	1
Pantothenic acid	mg	0.344
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.083
Folate, total	µg	18
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	18
Folate, DFE	µg	18
Choline, total 1	mg	6.9
Betaine 1	mg	83.4
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	0
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	1
Carotene, alpha	µg	0
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	0
Vitamin A, IU	IU	2
Lycopene	µg	0
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	54
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	0.01
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	0.5
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	0.042
04:00:00	g	0
06:00:00	g	0
08:00:00	g	0.002
10:00:00	g	0
12:00:00	g	0
14:00:00	g	0
16:00:00	g	0.037
18:00:00	g	0.002
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.031
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.001
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.03
20:01:00	g	0
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.098
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.094
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.004
18:04:00	g	0
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.048
Threonine	g	0.089
Isoleucine	g	0.114
Leucine	g	0.208
Lysine	g	0.085
Methionine	g	0.048
Cystine	g	0.071
Phenylalanine	g	0.145
Tyrosine	g	0.09
Valine	g	0.139
Arginine	g	0.144
Histidine	g	0.071
Alanine	g	0.109
Aspartic acid	g	0.158
Glutamic acid	g	0.973
Glycine	g	0.124
Proline	g	0.32
Serine	g	0.145
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0

[Source: United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service ²⁵] References

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