Amaranth

Amaranths are plants of the genus Amaranthus belonging to the family of Amaranthaceae (order Caryophyllales) with at least 70 species, which can be classified into grain and vegetable amaranths ¹. Amaranth grains includes Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus hypochondriacus; the leafy vegetable and colorful ornamentals Amaranthus tricolor (red amaranth) ². Amaranth is consumed as both a vegetable and a grain ³. Among culinary uses, amaranth can be used as a vegetable and its grain as gluten-free pseudocereal in several food products such as whole-meal amaranth flour, bread, cookies, pastries, pancakes, cereal flakes, pasta, tortillas, popping, and candies ⁴. Raw or unprocessed amaranth grain is high in phytate. It is widely recognized that phytate can impede the absorption of iron and other macronutrients (carbohydrates, fat and protein) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) from the gut. This problem can be resolved, however, by applying homemade processing, such as soaking, germinating, and fermenting ⁵. Amaranth grain can be fermented, malted to produce beer, and sprouted for salad preparation, whereas its green can be used in salads, meat and fish dishes ⁶. Amaranth flour is used in soups, gravies, and stews as a thickener ⁷. In addition, amaranth has tremendous potential in the processing of gluten-free products rich in nutrients such as bread, pasta, and confectionery ⁸. In certain regions of the world, such as eastern Africa, amaranth leaves are consumed as a vegetable because it is a fast-growing plant available most of the year. Nonfood applications of amaranth include laundry starch, cosmetics, paper coatings, and biodegradable films ⁷.

Amaranth is a gluten-free pseudocereal that is cultivated primarily in Mexico and South America (Argentina, Peru and Bolivia), but also thrives in all temperate-tropical areas of the world ⁹. The amaranth plant is adapted to grow under different agro-climatic conditions and reported to be heat, drought, and pest tolerant ¹⁰. Amaranthus spp. can be found in subtropical, tropical, and temperate climate zones around the world ¹¹. Amaranthus crop demonstrated its capacity to cultivate both as a grain and leafy in those areas and seasons where other crops are unable to flourish ¹². There has been a renewed interest in this ancient and highly nutritious food crop due to the excellent nutritional value of seed and leaves ¹³. Nutrient composition causes an increasing interest in amaranth as a food ingredient, especially in the production of gluten-free products ¹⁴. Both amaranth seeds and leaves are rich sources of proteins, which constitute up to 15–43% and 14–30% of fresh matter, respectively. Amaranth grain consists of proteins (13–22%), lipids (5–13%), dietary fiber (9–14%), vitamins (vitamin C, riboflavin, niacin), minerals, and other phytoconstituents including betalains ¹⁵. Furthermore, the amaranth proteins have a well-balanced amino acid composition ¹³, high bioavailability ¹⁶ and good functional properties ¹⁷ with a remarkable amount of lysine and methionine relative to typical cereals ¹⁸ and advocated to be a substitute natural source of squalene (polyunsaturated triterpene compound). Amaranth grain is gluten-free, making it an ideal food crop for millions of people worldwide. This nutritional value of amaranth is well-balanced and very similar to that recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization ¹⁹. Recently, a randomized control trial evaluated the effect of amaranth processed bread (amaranth 70% and chickpea 30%) and maize bread (roasted and fermented) on 2–5 years old Southern Ethiopian children with anemia for 6 months ²⁰. Processed amaranth bread showed favorable effects on hemoglobin concentration and can reduce the incidence of anemia ²⁰. The relatively high price of amaranth grain (USD 0.9–1.0 per kg), which is up to five times and 10 times higher than wheat and maize, respectively, is the aspect that has improved the performance of amaranth so far ²¹. Haplessly, this high price has also been a major factor in limiting the use of amaranth grain to “health” food products, especially in developing countries.

Different edible species of Amaranth are being consumed widely as leafy vegetable across the world due mainly to its lower price and rich source of protein, carotenoids, vitamin C, dietary fiber ²² and minerals such as calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium ²³. Amaranth leaves are usually picked fresh for use as greens in salads or blanched, steamed, boiled, fried in oil, and mixed with meat, fish, cucurbit seeds, groundnut or palm oil. Cooked greens can be used as a side dish, in soups or as an ingredient in sauce and baby food formulations. Amaranth grain is a popular snack sold in Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and parts of North America.

In addition to macronutrients (carbohydrates, fat and protein) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), amaranth contains secondary plant metabolites, which may play a significant role in the human diet due to their potential health beneficial effects ²⁴. Amaranthus has well been documented to possess important pharmacological properties including anticancer ²⁵, anti-inflammatory ²⁶ and antioxidant activity ²⁷. The published data on in vitro (test tube studies) and in vivo (animal studies) findings revealed that the genus Amaranthus has health-protective and therapeutic properties ascribed mainly to its potent antioxidant potential ²⁸. Notably, Amaranthus caudatus has been positioned in the top five vegetable plants with antioxidant potential ⁹. The excellent antioxidant capacity of amaranth can be owing to the presence of phenolic acids, flavonoids, phytosterols, and squalene. Apart from that, hydrolysates or bioactive peptides from amaranth have gained interest as antioxidant peptides in recent years ²⁹. Among others, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, immunomodulation, antitumor, and antimicrobial activities of Amaranthus spp. bioactive peptides have been reported ⁹.

Considerable research has been conducted over the past years on phenolic compound profile of amaranth seeds ³⁰ and their functional and bioactive properties ³¹. Moreover, recent findings confirmed that leaves and other aerial parts of Amaranthus also are important sources of phenolic compounds ³². Among phenolic compounds, those belonging to hydroxycinnamic acids, benzoic acids, and flavonols and their glycosides were identified in amaranth leaves, flowers, and stalks ³². Steffensen et al. ³³ found additional hydroxycinnamyl amides in aerial parts of young plants. Phenolic compounds are well-known as antioxidants. Conforti et al. ³⁴ showed that amaranth leaf extracts contained phenolics, inhibited nitric oxide production, and scavenged free radicals. The reducing potential and antioxidant activity in lipid systems of various parts of amaranth shoot system were determined as well ³⁵. Other phytochemicals with antioxidant activity which occur in amaranth are betalains, especially betacyanins ³⁶. The contents of these pigments vary among Amaranthus species and genotypes ³⁷.

Figure 1. Amaranthus caudatus (also known as Rajgira, Ramdana or Chaulai)

Figure 2. Amaranthus hypochondriacus

Figure 3. Amaranthus dubius

Figure 4. Amaranthus hybridus

Figure 5. Amaranthus tricolor

Amaranth nutrition facts

Amaranth is a good source of fiber, protein, lipids (oil), minerals such as calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, phosphorous, magnesium, and manganese, along with several other vitamins (vitamin C, riboflavin, niacin and caretonoids). Amaranth grain contains 16/100 grams (g) protein, 173 milligrams (mg)/100 g calcium, 35 mg/100 g iron, 3 mg/100 g zinc, and higher potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, manganese, vitamins A and E, and folic acid levels than cereal grains ³⁸.

Amaranth grain consists of 6 to 9% of oil which is higher than most other cereals. Amaranth oil contains approximately 77% unsaturated fatty acids and is high in linoleic acid, which is necessary for human nutrition ³⁹. The lipid fraction is unique due to the high squalene oil, a fatty compound which are known to affect cholesterol biosynthesis. Detailed studies on amaranth grain oil have been researched further in the last 2–3 decades ⁴⁰.

Table 1. Amaranth grain uncooked nutrition facts per 100g

Name	Amount	Unit
Water	11.3	g
Energy	371	kcal
Energy	1550	kJ
Protein	13.6	g
Total lipid (fat)	7.02	g
Ash	2.88	g
Carbohydrate, by difference	65.2	g
Fiber, total dietary	6.7	g
Sugars, total including NLEA	1.69	g
Sucrose	1.4	g
Glucose	0.27	g
Fructose	0.01	g
Lactose	0	g
Maltose	0.01	g
Galactose	0	g
Starch	57.3	g
Calcium, Ca	159	mg
Iron, Fe	7.61	mg
Magnesium, Mg	248	mg
Phosphorus, P	557	mg
Potassium, K	508	mg
Sodium, Na	4	mg
Zinc, Zn	2.87	mg
Copper, Cu	0.525	mg
Manganese, Mn	3.33	mg
Selenium, Se	18.7	µg
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	4.2	mg
Thiamin	0.116	mg
Riboflavin	0.2	mg
Niacin	0.923	mg
Pantothenic acid	1.46	mg
Vitamin B-6	0.591	mg
Folate, total	82	µg
Folic acid	0	µg
Folate, food	82	µg
Folate, DFE	82	µg
Choline, total	69.8	mg
Betaine	67.6	mg
Vitamin B-12	0	µg
Vitamin B-12, added	0	µg
Vitamin A, RAE	0	µg
Retinol	0	µg
Carotene, beta	1	µg
Carotene, alpha	0	µg
Cryptoxanthin, beta	0	µg
Vitamin A, IU	2	IU
Lycopene	0	µg
Lutein + zeaxanthin	28	µg
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	1.19	mg
Tocopherol, beta	0.96	mg
Tocopherol, gamma	0.19	mg
Tocopherol, delta	0.69	mg
Tocotrienol, alpha	0	mg
Tocotrienol, beta	0.48	mg
Tocotrienol, gamma	0.29	mg
Tocotrienol, delta	0	mg
Vitamin D (D2 + D3), International Units	0	IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	0	µg
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	0	µg
Vitamin K (Dihydrophylloquinone)	0	µg
Vitamin K (Menaquinone-4)	0	µg
Fatty acids, total saturated	1.46	g
SFA 8:0	0	g
SFA 10:0	0	g
SFA 12:0	0	g
SFA 14:0	0.011	g
SFA 15:0	0	g
SFA 16:0	1.15	g
SFA 17:0	0	g
SFA 18:0	0.223	g
SFA 20:0	0.052	g
SFA 22:0	0.018	g
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	1.68	g
MUFA 14:1	0	g
MUFA 15:1	0	g
MUFA 16:1	0	g
MUFA 17:1	0	g
MUFA 18:1	1.67	g
MUFA 20:1	0.014	g
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	2.78	g
PUFA 18:2	2.74	g
PUFA 18:3	0.042	g
PUFA 18:3 n-3 c,c,c (ALA)	0.042	g
PUFA 18:3 n-6 c,c,c	0	g
PUFA 20:2 n-6 c,c	0	g
PUFA 20:3	0	g
PUFA 20:4	0	g
Cholesterol	0	mg
Tryptophan	0.181	g
Threonine	0.558	g
Isoleucine	0.582	g
Leucine	0.879	g
Lysine	0.747	g
Methionine	0.226	g
Cystine	0.191	g
Phenylalanine	0.542	g
Tyrosine	0.329	g
Valine	0.679	g
Arginine	1.06	g
Histidine	0.389	g
Alanine	0.799	g
Aspartic acid	1.26	g
Glutamic acid	2.26	g
Glycine	1.64	g
Proline	0.698	g
Serine	1.15	g
Alcohol, ethyl	0	g

[Source ⁴¹ ]

Table 2. Amaranth leaves raw nutrition facts per 100g

Name	Amount	Unit
Water	91.7	g
Energy	23	kcal
Energy	97	kJ
Protein	2.46	g
Total lipid (fat)	0.33	g
Ash	1.5	g
Carbohydrate, by difference	4.02	g
Calcium, Ca	215	mg
Iron, Fe	2.32	mg
Magnesium, Mg	55	mg
Phosphorus, P	50	mg
Potassium, K	611	mg
Sodium, Na	20	mg
Zinc, Zn	0.9	mg
Copper, Cu	0.162	mg
Manganese, Mn	0.885	mg
Selenium, Se	0.9	µg
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	43.3	mg
Thiamin	0.027	mg
Riboflavin	0.158	mg
Niacin	0.658	mg
Pantothenic acid	0.064	mg
Vitamin B-6	0.192	mg
Folate, total	85	µg
Folic acid	0	µg
Folate, food	85	µg
Folate, DFE	85	µg
Vitamin B-12	0	µg
Vitamin A, RAE	146	µg
Retinol	0	µg
Vitamin A, IU	2920	IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3), International Units	0	IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	0	µg
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	1140	µg
Fatty acids, total saturated	0.091	g
SFA 14:0	0.001	g
SFA 16:0	0.073	g
SFA 18:0	0.012	g
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	0.076	g
MUFA 18:1	0.076	g
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	0.147	g
PUFA 18:2	0.145	g
PUFA 18:3	0.002	g
Fatty acids, total trans	0	g
Cholesterol	0	mg
Tryptophan	0.031	g
Threonine	0.099	g
Isoleucine	0.119	g
Leucine	0.195	g
Lysine	0.127	g
Methionine	0.036	g
Cystine	0.029	g
Phenylalanine	0.133	g
Tyrosine	0.08	g
Valine	0.137	g
Arginine	0.121	g
Histidine	0.052	g
Alanine	0.139	g
Aspartic acid	0.229	g
Glutamic acid	0.292	g
Glycine	0.132	g
Proline	0.121	g
Serine	0.111	g

[Source ⁴² ]

Table 3. Amaranth grain cooked nutrition facts per 100g

Name	Amount	Unit
Water	75.2	g
Energy	102	kcal
Energy	429	kJ
Protein	3.8	g
Total lipid (fat)	1.58	g
Ash	0.77	g
Carbohydrate, by difference	18.7	g
Fiber, total dietary	2.1	g
Starch	16.2	g
Calcium, Ca	47	mg
Iron, Fe	2.1	mg
Magnesium, Mg	65	mg
Phosphorus, P	148	mg
Potassium, K	135	mg
Sodium, Na	6	mg
Zinc, Zn	0.86	mg
Copper, Cu	0.149	mg
Manganese, Mn	0.854	mg
Selenium, Se	5.5	µg
Thiamin	0.015	mg
Riboflavin	0.022	mg
Niacin	0.235	mg
Vitamin B-6	0.113	mg
Folate, total	22	µg
Folate, food	22	µg
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	0.19	mg
Tocopherol, beta	0.38	mg
Tocopherol, gamma	0.05	mg
Tocopherol, delta	0.24	mg
Tocotrienol, alpha	0	mg
Tocotrienol, beta	0	mg
Tocotrienol, gamma	0.02	mg
Tocotrienol, delta	0	mg

[Source ⁴³ ]

Table 4. Amaranth leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt nutrition facts per 100g

Name	Amount	Unit
Water	91.5	g
Energy	21	kcal
Energy	88	kJ
Protein	2.11	g
Total lipid (fat)	0.18	g
Ash	2.11	g
Carbohydrate, by difference	4.11	g
Calcium, Ca	209	mg
Iron, Fe	2.26	mg
Magnesium, Mg	55	mg
Phosphorus, P	72	mg
Potassium, K	641	mg
Sodium, Na	21	mg
Zinc, Zn	0.88	mg
Copper, Cu	0.158	mg
Manganese, Mn	0.861	mg
Selenium, Se	0.9	µg
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	41.1	mg
Thiamin	0.02	mg
Riboflavin	0.134	mg
Niacin	0.559	mg
Pantothenic acid	0.062	mg
Vitamin B-6	0.177	mg
Folate, total	57	µg
Folic acid	0	µg
Folate, food	57	µg
Folate, DFE	57	µg
Vitamin B-12	0	µg
Vitamin A, RAE	139	µg
Retinol	0	µg
Vitamin A, IU	2770	IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3), International Units	0	IU
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	0	µg
Fatty acids, total saturated	0.05	g
SFA 14:0	0	g
SFA 16:0	0.04	g
SFA 18:0	0.006	g
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	0.041	g
MUFA 18:1	0.041	g
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	0.08	g
PUFA 18:2	0.079	g
PUFA 18:3	0.001	g
Fatty acids, total trans	0	g
Cholesterol	0	mg
Tryptophan	0.027	g
Threonine	0.085	g
Isoleucine	0.102	g
Leucine	0.167	g
Lysine	0.109	g
Methionine	0.031	g
Cystine	0.025	g
Phenylalanine	0.114	g
Tyrosine	0.068	g
Valine	0.118	g
Arginine	0.104	g
Histidine	0.044	g
Alanine	0.119	g
Aspartic acid	0.196	g
Glutamic acid	0.25	g
Glycine	0.113	g
Proline	0.104	g
Serine	0.095	g

[Source ⁴⁴ ]

Amaranth health benefits

Both the amaranth grain and amaranth leaves are utilized for use for human as well as for animal food ⁴⁵. Both amaranth seeds and leaves are excellent sources of proteins, which constitute up to 15–43% and 14–30% of fresh matter, respectively ¹⁵. Amaranth grain has higher protein than other cereal grains and has a well-balanced amino acid composition with significantly higher amount of lysine and methionine ¹⁸. In the United States, breakfast cereals, pastas, breads, etc. containing amaranth grain or flour are available in health food stores. In India, Mexico, Nepal, Peru, and some other countries, amaranth grain is a traditional food used as a gruel or in confectionery products. Amaranth grain is also potentially useful as a source of small-grained specialty starch and as a source of squalene oil.

Vegetable amaranth has been rated considerably higher in protein, vitamin C, dietary fiber ²² and minerals such as calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, phosphorous, magnesium, and manganese ²³ and caretonoids ⁴⁶ than most vegetables. Pharmacological properties of different amaranth species also have been investigated. Several species of Amaranthus have been reported to contain various bioactive phytochemicals such as carotenoids, ascorbic acid, flavonoids and phenolic acids etc ²⁷. It was determined that Amaranth paniculatus and Amaranth cruentus are good sources of flavanoids, especially for rutin, which are mostly produced in the stage of blossoming ⁴⁷. Amaranth has also been documented to possess important pharmacological properties including anticancer ²⁵, anti-inflammatory ²⁶ and antioxidant activity ²⁷. Antioxidants are naturally occurring compounds that help protect against harmful free radicals in the body. Free radicals can cause damage to cells and contribute to the development of chronic disease ⁴⁸.

Amaranth oil for coronary heart disease and hypertension

The inclusion of amaranth oil in the diet contributes to an increase in the concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly, long-chain acid of omega 3 families in patients suffering from hypertension and coronary heart disease ³⁹. Qureshi with co-authors ⁴⁹ showed that feeding of chickens with amaranth oil decreases blood cholesterol levels, which are supported by the work of other researchers ⁵⁰. The effect of amaranth oil was studied in a randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of 125 patients with cardiovascular disease (coronary heart disease and hypertension) ³⁹. The patients were randomized to amaranth oil 3–18 ml amaranth oil daily (3 ml amaranth oil providing a 100 mg squalene). All 125 patients got low sodium antiatherogenic diet and behavioral recommendations. Biochemical and clinical indices was monitored during the treatment and after 3 weeks. The experiment was conducted on men and women, aged 32–68, suffering from coronary heart disease and hypertension accompanied by obesity. Amaranth oil decreases the amount of total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL (low-density lipoprotein or “bad” cholesterol) and VLDL (very-low-density lipoprotein or “bad” cholesterol) significantly ³⁹. Amaranth oil beneficial action is seen best when used at a dose of 18 ml per day (600 mg squalene) ³⁹.

Amaranth dietary source of phytosterols

University of Guelph researchers in Ontario, Canada found that amaranth can be a rich dietary source of phytosterols, which have cholesterol-lowering properties ⁵¹. Of the four varieties tested, the top results came from Amaranthus K343, often called Plainsman, the most commonly cultivated amaranth in the United States. Phytosterols (plant sterols) are plant steroid alcohols (triterpenes) that are important structural components of plant membranes that are found in many food plants, nuts, seeds, vegetables, and edible oils ⁵².

Dietary incorporation of plant sterols and stanols is recommended for blood cholesterol reduction ⁵³, ⁵⁴. Berger et al. ⁵⁵ reviewed clinical trials on efficacy of plant sterols as cholesterol lowering agents and reported that the consumption of plant sterols/stanols have been reported to reduce low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels by 5–15%.

In addition to their cholesterol lowering effect, plant sterols may possess anti-cancer ⁵⁶, anti-atherosclerosis ⁵⁷, ⁵⁸, anti-inflammation ⁵⁹ and anti-oxidation activities ⁶⁰.

Amaranth may have anti-cancer and anti-inflamatory properties

Molecular biologists in Mexico set out to study the bioactive peptides in amaranth and, in 2008, were the first to report presence of a lunasin-like peptide in the protein in amaranth ²⁹. Lunasin is a peptide previously identified in soybeans and is widely thought to have cancer-preventive benefits as well as possibly blocking inflammation. Inflammation is a normal immune response designed to protect the body against injury and infection. However, chronic inflammation can contribute to chronic disease and has been associated with several chronic health conditions like cancer, diabetes, heart disease, stroke and autoimmune disorders ⁶¹.

Several studies have found that amaranth could have an anti-inflammatory effect in the body. In one test-tube study, amaranth was found to reduce several markers of inflammation ⁶². Similarly, an animal study showed that amaranth helped inhibit the production of immunoglobulin E (IgE), a type of antibody involved in allergic inflammation ⁶³. Additional bioactive peptides in amaranth protein were found to have antihypertensive properties. However, more research is needed to measure the potential anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects of amaranth in humans.

Amaranth’s protein is good for children

The Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama in Guatemala conducted a comparative study between the protein in amaranth and cheese protein ⁶⁴. Researchers concluded that the protein in amaranth is among the most nutritious vegetable-based protein and can be considered on par with protein from animal-based products. Researchers in Peru fed toasted amaranth flour, popped amaranth grain, and amaranth flakes to young children as the source of all dietary protein and fat, and as 50% of their daily energy requirements ⁶⁵. Later, children were fed a mix of amaranth and corn in various flour, flake, and meal forms. Results showed that protein uptake from amaranth flour was favorable, and combining amaranth with corn provided for better protein uptake than consuming corn alone ⁶⁵.

Amaranth potential to minimize anemia

Recently, a randomized control trial evaluated the effect of amaranth processed bread (amaranth 70% and chickpea 30%) and maize bread (roasted and fermented) on 2–5 years old Southern Ethiopian children with anemia for 6 months ²⁰. Processed amaranth bread showed favorable effects on hemoglobin concentration and can reduce the incidence of anemia ²⁰. Children who received amaranth containing bread had 61% significant reduction in the risk of anemia compared to those who received maize bread ²⁰. The prevalence of anemia was significantly lower (32%) in the amaranth group as compared with the maize group (56%) ²⁰. Similarly, the complete-case analysis result indicated a significant decrease of anemia prevalence in amaranth group (17%) as compared with (46%) in the maize group ²⁰. Intention to treat analysis showed that iron deficiency anemia risk was significantly decreased in the amaranth group from 35% at baseline to 15% at the last follow-up ²⁰.

In contrast, a study conducted in Kenya demonstrated that amaranth did not decrease anemia prevalence significantly ³⁸. But the study used raw/unprocessed amaranth grain, which is high in phytate, and suggested that reducing the phytate level of amaranth grain may contribute to increasing the hemoglobin level. It is widely recognized that phytate can impede the absorption of iron and other micro- and macro-nutrients from the gut. This problem can be resolved, however, by applying homemade processing, such as soaking, germinating, and fermenting ⁵.

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