What is okra

Okra (Hibiscus esculentus L. Moench) or lady finger or “gumbo” is a well-known tropical vegetable in the Malvaceae family, although the latter term is more often applied to soups or other dishes which contain okra ¹. Okra apparently originated in what the geobotanists call the Abyssinian center of origin of cultivated plants, an area that includes present-day Ethiopia, the mountainous or plateau portion of Eritrea, and the eastern, higher part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Okra is now widely planted from Africa to Asia and from South Europe to America.

Okra is rarely used “straight” except when fried with meal, just a little of it usually being cooked with other vegetables or put into soups and stews. Okra alone is generally considered too “gooey,” or mucilaginous, to suit American tastes. In recent years, however, it has become an important commercial crop in certain localities in the South, where thousands of tons of the pods are grown for the large soup companies.

Okra is easily dried for later use. A little dried okra in prepared dishes produces much the same results as does the fresh product.

In some lands the seeds rather than the whole young pods are of most interest. When ripe the seeds yield an edible oil that is the equal of many other cooking oils. In Mediterranean countries and the East, where edible oils are scarcer than in our country, okra oil is no rarity.

The ripe seeds of okra are sometimes roasted and ground as a substitute for coffee. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeine-free substitute for coffee.

Okra leaves may be cooked in a similar way to the greens of beets or dandelions. The leaves are also eaten raw in salads. In Turkey, the leaves are used in preparing a medicament to soothe or reduce inflammation. A close relative of okra, roselle, is used as a source of fiber for cloth.

Figure 1. Okra

Okra nutrition facts

Raw okra is 90% water, 2% protein, 7% carbohydrates and negligible in fat. In a 100 gram amount, raw okra is rich (10% or more of the Daily Value, DV) in dietary fiber, vitamin C and vitamin K, with moderate contents of iron, calcium, thiamin, folate manganese and magnesium.

Table 1. Okra (raw) nutrition facts

Okra uses

Okra is considered as an important constituent for balanced food due to its dietary fibers and amino-acid composition which is rich in lysine and tryptophan ³. Its fruits are harvested when immature and are commonly consumed as salads, soups, and stews ⁴. The roots and stems are used for cleaning the cane-juice during brown-sugar preparation ⁵. The seeds have also gained much interest as a new oil (30–40%) and protein (15–20%) source ⁶. Okra has been found to possess various ethno-pharmacological and medicinal properties against cancer, high-cholesterol, and Diabetes mellitus ⁷.

Benefits of eating okra

Because of its high amount of mucilage, okra is also used in traditional medicine as a dietary meal to treat gastric irritation. The structural elements of mucilage have recently been characterized as pectin-like rhamnogalacturonans ⁸ with unusual structural features ⁹. Additionally, these okra rhamnogalacturonan polysaccharides reportedly possess antiadhesive properties that interrupt the adhesion of Helicobacter pylori to human stomach tissue ¹⁰.

The fiber in Okra help to stabilize blood sugar by regulating the rate at which sugar is absorbed from the intestinal tract ¹¹. Previous studies reported that Okra polysaccharide possesses hepatoprotective ¹², antidiabetic ¹³, antiulcer ¹⁴, anticancer ¹⁵, anti-inflammatory, laxative, antihyperlipidemic, antifungal, and analgesic activities ¹⁶. Recently, some quercetin derivatives, well-known antioxidants, were identified and isolated from Okra ¹⁷. Nutritionally, the richest part of Okra plant is the dried seeds. The oil of Okra seeds is edible and the residual meal after oil extraction is rich in protein. However, further investigations are required to characterize the active constituent(s) responsible for the observed activities and to elucidate the detailed mechanism of action at the cellular and molecular levels.

Okra toxicity and side effects

Acute oral toxicity of Okra seed extracts was determined as per Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines 423 ¹⁸. A single oral dose (5, 50, 300, and 2000 mg/kg) of extracts was administered to four mice groups (n = 6) and was observed individually at least once during the first 30 min, periodically during the first 24 h, with special attention given during the first 4 hours and daily thereafter, for a total of 14 days for abnormal signs, diarrhea, and food and water intake. The animal body weight and locomotor activity score using actophotometer were measured at 0th (initial) and 14th (final) days. On the 14th day, the mice were anesthetized through intraperitoneal injection of a cocktail containing ketamine (80 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg). Blood samples were collected by cardiac puncture and hematological parameters were analysed using ABX Micros-60 hematology analyser. All the vital organs were collected and weighed. The heart, liver, and kidney of the mice treated with AE and ME (2000 mg/kg, p.o) were processed for haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) histopathological staining. In the acute oral toxicity study, mice did not show any signs of toxicity or death up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg,  hence the LD50 cut-off value might exceed 2000 mg/kg; hence, 1/10th of the dose 200 mg/kg was taken as an effective dose for in vivo pharmacological studies ¹⁹. Further acute and subchronic (28 days) oral dose toxicity studies are warranted to investigate the potential toxicity after single and 28-day repeated oral dosing of Okra seed extracts in experimental animals.

1. https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/archives/parsons/publications/vegetabletravelers/okra.html
2. United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list
3. Hughes J. (2009). Just famine foods? What contribution can underutilized plant make to food security? Acta Hortic. 806, 39–47. 10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.806.2
4. Salameh N. M. (2014). Genetic diversity of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) landraces from different agro-ecological regions revealed by AFLP analysis. American-Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci. 14, 155–160. 10.3844/ajassp.2014.1157.1163
5. Shetty A. A., Singh J. P., Singh D. (2013). Resistance to yellow vein mosaic virus in okra: a review. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 29, 159–164. 10.1080/01448765.2013.793165
6. Gemede H. F., Ratta N., Haki G. D., Woldegiorgis A. Z., Beyene F. (2015). Nutritional quality and health benefits of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus): a Review. J. Food Process. Technol. 6:458 10.4172/2157-7110.1000458
7. Direct comparison of a dietary portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods with a statin in hypercholesterolemic participants. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Wong JM, de Souza R, Emam A, Parker TL, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Lapsley KG, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Singer W, Connelly PW. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Feb; 81(2):380-7. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/81/2/380.long
8. Characterisation of cell wall polysaccharides from okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench). Sengkhamparn N, Verhoef R, Schols HA, Sajjaanantakul T, Voragen AG. Carbohydr Res. 2009 Sep 28; 344(14):1824-32.
9. Okra pectin contains an unusual substitution of its rhamnosyl residues with acetyl and alpha-linked galactosyl groups. Sengkhamparn N, Bakx EJ, Verhoef R, Schols HA, Sajjaanantakul T, Voragen AG. Carbohydr Res. 2009 Sep 28; 344(14):1842-51.
10. Glycosylated compounds from okra inhibit adhesion of Helicobacter pylori to human gastric mucosa. Lengsfeld C, Titgemeyer F, Faller G, Hensel A. J Agric Food Chem. 2004 Mar 24; 52(6):1495-503. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15030201/
11. Doreddula SK, Bonam SR, Gaddam DP, Desu BSR, Ramarao N, Pandy V. Phytochemical Analysis, Antioxidant, Antistress, and Nootropic Activities of Aqueous and Methanolic Seed Extracts of Ladies Finger (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) in Mice. The Scientific World Journal. 2014;2014:519848. doi:10.1155/2014/519848. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4221879/
12. Hu L., Yu W., Li Y., Prasad N., Tang Z. Antioxidant activity of extract and its major constituents from okra seed on rat hepatocytes injured by carbon tetrachloride. BioMed Research International. 2014;2014 doi: 10.1155/2014/341291.341291 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3955651/
13. Sabitha V., Ramachandran S., Naveen K. R., Panneerselvam K. Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic potential of Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench. in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences. 2011;3(3):397–402. doi: 10.4103/0975-7406.84447. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178946/
14. Olorunnipa T. A., Igbokwe C. C., Lawal T. O., Adeniyi B. A., Mahady G. B. Anti-helicobacter pylori activity of Abelmoschus esculentus L. moench (okra): an in vitro study. Clinical Microbiology. 2013 doi: 10.4172/2327-5073.1000132.
15. Gul M. Z., Bhakshu L. M., Ahmad F., Kondapi A. K., Qureshi I. A., Ghazi I. A. Evaluation of Abelmoschus moschatus extracts for antioxidant, free radical scavenging, antimicrobial and antiproliferative activities using in vitro assays. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2011;11, article 64 doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-11-64. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3201038/
16. Shah B. N., Seth A. K., Maheshwari K. M., Desai R. V. Screening of abelmoschus esculentus fruits for its analgesic activity. Pharmacology Online. 2010;2:17–21.
17. Shui G., Peng L. L. An improved method for the analysis of major antioxidants of Hibiscus esculentus Linn. Journal of Chromatography A. 2004;1048(1):17–24. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2004.07.032. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15453414
18. OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) Acute oral Toxicity-Acute Toxic Class Method. Paris, France: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; 2011. (Chemicals Testing Guidelines No. 423).
19. Idorenyin U., Samson O., Eno-obong B., Noah U. Histomorphological study of the effect of chronic consumption of Abelmoschus esculentus and Piper guineense on the gastric mucosa of albino wistar rats. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research & Allied Sciences. 2013;2(3):31–37.

What is pecan

Pecan (Carya illinoinensis) is a species of hickory native to Mexico and the southcentral and southeastern regions of the United States ¹. A pecan, like the fruit of all other members of the hickory genus, is not truly a nut, but is technically a drupe, a fruit with a single stone or pit, surrounded by a husk. The husks are produced from the exocarp tissue of the flower, while the part known as the nut develops from the endocarp and contains the seed. Pecans are among the most preferred of all nuts and an economically important crop in the United States ². In 2014, approximately 264 million pounds of pecan nuts (in-shell) were produced in the United States ³. Pecans are often sold without shells, which are removed during processing and often discarded. Based on a 50% shell-out ratio (ratio of kernel weight to the in-shell nut weight) ⁴, approximately 132 million pounds of pecan shells are produced by the US pecan industry per year. The outer husk is 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) thick, starts out green and turns brown at maturity, at which time it splits off in four sections to release the thin-shelled seed ⁵.

The seeds of the pecan are edible, with a rich, buttery flavor. They can be eaten fresh or used in cooking, particularly in sweet desserts. One of the most common desserts with the pecan as a central ingredient is the pecan pie, a traditional Southern U.S. dish. Pecans are also a major ingredient in praline candy ⁶.

Pecan wood is used in making furniture and wood flooring as well as flavoring fuel for smoking meats.

The pecan tree is a large deciduous tree, growing to 20–40 m (66–131 ft) in height, rarely to 44 m (144 ft) ¹. It typically has a spread of 12–23 m (39–75 ft) with a trunk up to 2 m (6.6 ft) diameter. A 10-year-old sapling grown in optimal conditions will stand about 5 m (16 ft) tall. The leaves are alternate, 30–45 cm (12–18 in) long, and pinnate with 9–17 leaflets, each leaflet 5–12 cm (2.0–4.7 in) long and 2–6 cm (0.79–2.36 in) broad.

Pecan and other tree nuts are recognized to be among the eight food groups that cause the majority of food allergies [US Food and Drug Administration ⁷] and are required to be labeled in the USA by the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 when they are used as ingredients in preparing a food product. Failing to inform the consumer of an allergen source on a product label is one of the leading reasons for recent food recalls ⁸. Both allergenic patients and the food industry may become victims of foods containing unlabeled allergen sources. Seed storage proteins such as 2S, 7S and 11S globular proteins in many species are known allergens, including all three proteins in peanuts, hazelnuts, cashews, pistachios and walnuts. The 2S albumin ⁹ and 11S legumin ¹⁰ in pecan have also been identified as food allergens.

Figure 1. Pecan

Pecan nutrition facts

In 100 g, pecans provide 691 Calories and over 100% of the Daily Value (DV) for total fat. Pecans are a rich source of dietary fiber (38% DV), manganese (214% DV), magnesium (34% DV), phosphorus (40% DV), zinc (48% DV) and thiamin (57% DV). Pecans are also a good source (10-19% DV) of protein, iron, and B vitamins. Their fat content consists mainly of monounsaturated fatty acids, mainly oleic acid (57% of total fat), and the polyunsaturated fatty acid linoleic acid (30% of total fat).

Table 1. Nutritional value of pecans nuts (unroasted)

Health benefits of pecans

Pecan shell fiber (also known as pecan shell flour or ground pecan shells) is a food ingredient produced from shells of pecans, excluding the husks and nut kernels. Pecan shell fiber is predominantly composed of insoluble fiber (cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose) and contains small amounts of fat (<4%) and protein (<3%). It also contains approximately 4.5% polyphenols and 10% proanthocyanidins, molecules recognized for antioxidant activity ¹². Higher amounts of substances with antioxidant properties, such as phenolics, tannins, and gallic and ellagic acids, are also present in pecan shells when compared with the kernels ¹³. Ellagic acid causes reversed high-carbohydrate and high-fat diet-induced symptoms of metabolic syndrome in rats ¹⁴. This compound also inhibited porcine pancreatic lipase activity, indicating its effects on metabolism ¹⁵. Based on these findings, studies were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of aqueous extract of pecan shells to decrease glucose, triglycerides, and cholesterol using diabetes and hyperlipidemia models in rats and the results are promising ¹⁶. The shells have been used empirically in natura and in nutraceutical products against obesity and hypercholesterolemia ¹⁷. Pecan shells and gallic and ellagic acids have been investigated in the prevention or treatment of human diseases such as metabolic and inflammatory conditions, neurological disorders, gastric ulcers, and cancer ¹⁸, ¹⁹. Aqueous extract from pecan nut shell show activity against breast cancer cell line MCF-7 and Ehrlich ascites tumor in Balb-C mice ²⁰. These results were attributed to the phenolic profile of the extract, which presented compounds such as gallic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic, vanillic, caffeic and ellagic acid, and catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin and epicatechin gallate. The results indicated that pecan nut shell extracts are effective against tumor cells growth and may be considered as an alternative to the treatment of cancer. Therefore, pecan shell fiber has potential as both a fiber ingredient and antioxidant in food formulations. Pecan shell fiber provides an additional benefit that several fiber ingredients do not possess- high polyphenol and proanthocyanidin content, which will aid in the preservation of food. However, only a few studies examined their safety and chemical constituents ²¹.

The American Association of Feed Control Officials ²² includes Ground Pecan Shells (definition 60.110) in the 2015 official publication of animal feed ingredients ²² as a source of fiber. Although pecan shell fiber is Generally Recognized as Safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ²³ for use as a “natural” flavor complex for meat products (at a maximum level of 3000 ppm (0.3%)) ²⁴, pecan shell fiber is not GRAS for other purposes ²³. Under section 201(s) of the Food Drug and Cosmetic Act, the use of a substance, rather than the substance itself, is eligible for a GRAS determination ²⁵. However, pecan shells have inorganic elements (e.g copper & manganese) whose accumulation can be harmful and should be taken into account in the manufacturing of nutraceutical products of pecan ¹⁷. The excess intake of copper (Cu) may lead to neuropsychiatric symptoms such as those observed in Wilson’s disease ²⁶. Oxidative stress biomarkers and antioxidative enzyme activity increased after copper (Cu) overload in male Wistar rats, reflecting copper (Cu)-induced oxidative damage ²⁷, and daily administration of 0.15 mg Cu/100 g body weight for 90 days impaired spatial memory and neuromuscular coordination, indicative of chronic Cu toxicity ²⁸. Thus, the effects of excess Cu, manganese (Mn) and other mineral elements on the central nervous system may have contributed to the observed toxicity of pecan shell aqueous extract doses exceeding 200 mg/kg. However, other chemical components might be involved in inducing toxicity. Pecan shell aqueous extract is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds that interact with one other and might produce synergistic and additive effects. Although humans may have been ingesting small amounts of pecan shell fiber in the past, they have not been eating the ingredient at the considerably higher levels expected when used as a source of fiber. To support a higher level of consumption in humans, safe consumption of high levels of pecan shell fiber must be demonstrated in experimental animals. Genotoxicity studies should also be conducted because the potential for genotoxicity due to small levels of contaminants would increase with higher levels of consumption.

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3. USDA, Noncitrus fruits and nuts 2014 summary http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu
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8. Analysis of U.S. Food and Drug Administration food allergen recalls after implementation of the food allergen labeling and consumer protection act. Gendel SM, Zhu J. J Food Prot. 2013 Nov; 76(11):1933-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24215698/
9. Cloning and characterization of 2S albumin, Car i 1, a major allergen in pecan. Sharma GM, Irsigler A, Dhanarajan P, Ayuso R, Bardina L, Sampson HA, Roux KH, Sathe SK. J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Apr 27; 59(8):4130-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21395309/
10. Cloning and characterization of an 11S legumin, Car i 4, a major allergen in pecan. Sharma GM, Irsigler A, Dhanarajan P, Ayuso R, Bardina L, Sampson HA, Roux KH, Sathe SK. J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Sep 14; 59(17):9542-52. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21718052/
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13. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of kernels and shells of Mexican pecan (Carya illinoinensis). de la Rosa LA, Alvarez-Parrilla E, Shahidi F. J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Jan 12; 59(1):152-62. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21138247/
14. Panchal S. K., Ward L., Brown L. Ellagic acid attenuates high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome in rats. European Journal of Nutrition. 2013;52(2):559–568. doi: 10.1007/s00394-012-0358-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22538930
15. Sergent T., Vanderstraeten J., Winand J., Beguin P., Schneider Y.-J. Phenolic compounds and plant extracts as potential natural anti-obesity substances. Food Chemistry. 2012;135(1):68–73. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.04.074.
16. Porto L. C. S., da Silva J., Ferraz A. B. F., et al. The antidiabetic and antihypercholesterolemic effects of an aqueous extract from pecan shells in wistar rats. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2015;70(4):414–419. doi: 10.1007/s11130-015-0510-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26449221
17. Porto LCS, da Silva J, Sousa K, et al. Evaluation of Toxicological Effects of an Aqueous Extract of Shells from the Pecan Nut Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch and the Possible Association with Its Inorganic Constituents and Major Phenolic Compounds. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM. 2016;2016:4647830. doi:10.1155/2016/4647830. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4971311/
18. Müller L. G., Pase C. S., Reckziegel P., et al. Hepatoprotective effects of pecan nut shells on ethanol-induced liver damage. Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology. 2013;65(1-2):165–171. doi: 10.1016/j.etp.2011.08.002. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21924598
19. El Hawary S. S., Saad S., El Halawany A. M., Ali Z. Y., El Bishbishy M. Phenolic content and anti-hyperglycemic activity of pecan cultivars from Egypt. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2016;54(5):788–798. doi: 10.3109/13880209.2015.1080732. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26450069
20. Aqueous extract from pecan nut [Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh) C. Koch] shell show activity against breast cancer cell line MCF-7 and Ehrlich ascites tumor in Balb-C mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018 Jan 30;211:256-266. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.08.012. Epub 2017 Aug 12. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28807853
21. Evaluation of acute and subacute toxicity and mutagenic activity of the aqueous extract of pecan shells [Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch]. Porto LC, da Silva J, Ferraz Ade B, Corrêa DS, dos Santos MS, Porto CD, Picada JN. Food Chem Toxicol. 2013 Sep; 59():579-85. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23831307/
22. AAFCO, 60.110 Ground Pecan Shells. Official names and definitions of feed ingredients. In 2015 Official Publication. Association of American Feed Control Officials Incorporated. 2015, p. 415.
23. Pecan shell fiber. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/?set=GRASNotices&id=646&sort=GRN_No&order=DESC&startrow=1&type=basic&search=pecan
24. Waddell W.J., Cohen S.M., Feron V.J., Goodman J.I., Marnett L.J., Portoghese P.S., Rietjens I.M., Smith R.L., Adams T.B., Gavin L.C., McZGowen M.M., Williams M.C. GRAS flavoring substances 23. The 23rd publication by the FEMA expert panel presents safety and usage data on 174 new generally recognized as safe flavoring ingredients. Food Technol. 2007:22–49.
25. FDA, Substances Generally Recognized as Safe; Proposed Rule. Federal Register Volume 62, Number 74 (Thursday, April 17, 1997). From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [FR Doc No: 97-9706]. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1997-04-17/html/97-9706.htm
26. Association of dopamine receptor gene polymorphisms with the clinical course of Wilson disease. Litwin T, Gromadzka G, Samochowiec J, Grzywacz A, Członkowski A, Członkowska A. JIMD Rep. 2013; 8():73-80. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3565646/
27. Copper-induced alterations in rat brain depends on route of overload and basal copper levels. Arnal N, Dominici L, de Tacconi MJ, Marra CA. Nutrition. 2014 Jan; 30(1):96-106. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24290605/
28. Biochemical, histological, and memory impairment effects of chronic copper toxicity: a model for non-Wilsonian brain copper toxicosis in Wistar rat. Pal A, Badyal RK, Vasishta RK, Attri SV, Thapa BR, Prasad R. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2013 Jun; 153(1-3):257-68. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23613148/

What is pineapple good for

The pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant with an edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples and the most economically significant plant in the Bromeliaceae family ¹. Pineapple crop is cultivated in all tropical and subtropical regions and ranks third in production among noncitrus tropical fruits, following banana (including plantain) and mango. The annual worldwide production reached 21.9 million metric tons in 2012 and the top seven producers (Brazil, Philippines, Thailand, Costa Rica, Indonesia, India, and China) jointly accounted for 90% of the global production (FAO, 2014) ². The pineapple plant is indigenous to South America ³. The putative center of origin is located in the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brazil and Paraguay, based on the diversity distribution of related species and botanical varieties of pineapple in this region ⁴.

The flesh and juice of the pineapple are used in cuisines around the world. In many tropical countries, pineapple is prepared and sold on roadsides as a snack. It is sold whole or in halves with a stick inserted. Whole, cored slices with a cherry in the middle are a common garnish on hams in the West. Chunks of pineapple are used in desserts such as fruit salad, as well as in some savory dishes, including pizza toppings, or as a grilled ring on a hamburger. Crushed pineapple is used in yogurt, jam, sweets, and ice cream. The juice of the pineapple is served as a beverage, and it is also the main ingredient in cocktails such as the piña colada and in the drink tepache.

Pineapples can be consumed fresh, cooked, juiced, or preserved. They are found in a wide array of cuisines. In addition to consumption, the pineapple leaves are used to produce the textile fiber piña in the Philippines, commonly used as the material for the men’s barong and women’s baro’t saya formal wear in the country ⁵. The fiber is also used as a component for wallpaper and other furnishings.

Figure 1. Pineapples

Pineapple nutrition facts

In a 100-gram reference amount, raw pineapple is a rich source of manganese (44% Daily Value, DV) and vitamin C (58% DV), but otherwise contains no essential nutrients in significant quantities. Also in 100 gram of pineapple has 13.12 gram of carbs and only 50 calories. Sugar/acid ratio and ascorbic acid content vary considerably with the cultivar. The sugar content may change from 4% to 15% during the final 2 weeks before full ripening.

Table 1. Pineapple, raw, all varieties nutrition facts

Table 2. Pineapple juice canned or bottled, unsweetened, without added ascorbic acid nutrition facts

Pineapple health benefits

Present in all parts of the pineapple plant, bromelain is a mixture of proteolytic enzymes ⁷.

Bromelain belongs to a group of protein digesting enzymes obtained commercially from the fruit or stem of pineapple ⁸. However, bromelain is usually referred to the pineapple stem bromelain. Pineapple is the common name of Ananas comosus (Ananas sativus, Ananassa sativa, Bromelia ananas, Bromelia comosa). Pineapple is the leading edible member of the family Bromeliaceae, grown in several tropical and subtropical countries including Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Kenya, India, and China. Pineapple has been used as a medicinal plant in several native cultures ⁹ and these medicinal qualities of pineapple are attributed to bromelain, which is a crude extract from pineapple.

Bromelain concentration is high in pineapple stem, thus necessitating its extraction because, unlike the pineapple fruit which is normally used as food, the stem is a waste byproduct and thus inexpensive ¹⁰.

Bromelain is a mixture of different thiol endopeptidases and other components like phosphatase, glucosidase, peroxidase, cellulase, escharase and several protease inhibitors. In vitro (test tubes) and in vivo (animal) studies demonstrate that bromelain exhibits various fibrinolytic, antiedematous, antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory activities. Bromelain is considerably absorbable in the body without losing its proteolytic activity and without producing any major side effects. Bromelain accounts for many therapeutic benefits like the treatment of angina pectoris, bronchitis, sinusitis, surgical trauma, and thrombophlebitis, debridement of wounds, and enhanced absorption of drugs, particularly antibiotics. Bromelain also relieves osteoarthritis, diarrhea, and various cardiovascular disorders. Bromelain also possesses some anticancerous activities and promotes apoptotic cell death.

Pineapple Side Effects and Toxicity

When unripe, the pineapple is not only inedible but poisonous, irritating the throat and acting as a strong laxative ¹¹.

The bromelain content of raw pineapple is responsible for the sore mouth feeling often experienced when eating it, due to the enzymes breaking down the proteins of sensitive tissues in the mouth. Also, raphides, needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate that occur in pineapple fruits and leaves, likely cause microabrasions, contributing to mouth discomfort ¹².

Excessive consumption of pineapple cores has caused the formation of fiber balls (bezoars) in the digestive tract ¹¹.

Bromelain enzyme

Bromelainis a mixture of different thiol endopeptidases and other components like phosphatases, glucosidase, peroxidases, cellulases, glycoproteins, carbohydrates, and several protease inhibitors ¹³. Stem bromelain is different from fruit bromelain ¹⁴. Proteinases are considered to be the most active fraction, which comprise ~2% of the total proteins ¹⁵. Bromelain enzymatic activities comprise a wide spectrum with pH range of 4.5 to 9.5 ¹⁶. Nowadays, bromelain is prepared from cooled pineapple juice by centrifugation, ultrafiltration, and lyophilization ¹⁷. The process yields a yellowish powder, the enzyme activity of which is determined with different substrates such as casein, gelatin (gelatin digestion units), or chromogenic tripeptides ¹⁸.

The composition of bromelain varies based on the method of purification and the source; stem bromelain contains high quantities of protease content when compared with bromelain derived from the fruit ¹⁹. It was demonstrated that the majority of the physiological activity of bromelain may not be due to single proteolytic fraction and it is likely that the beneficial effects of bromelain are due to multiple factors ¹⁸. Bromelain has not only been used to treat various health problems, it is also popular as a nutritional supplement to promote health. Bromelain is absorbed into the human intestines and remains biologically active with a half-life of ~6–9 hours ²⁰. The highest concentration of bromelain was identified in the blood one hour after administration ²¹. Bromelain increases bioavailability and reduces the side effects that are associated with various antibiotics ²². Furthermore, bromelain acts as an immunomodulator, is anti-metastatic, anti-edematous, anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory ²³. These findings indicate that bromelain may present as a promising candidate for the development of future anticancer therapeutic strategies. Notably, although numerous studies have been conducted regarding bromelain there are limited reviews that document the complete anticancer activity of bromelain.

Absorption and Bioavailability of Bromelain

The body can absorb significant amount of bromelain; about 12 gm/day of bromelain can be consumed without any major side effects ¹⁹. Bromelain is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract in a functionally intact form; approximately 40% of labeled bromelain is absorbed from intestine in high molecular form ²⁴. In a study carried out by Castell et al. ¹⁹ bromelain was detected to retain its proteolytic activity in plasma and was also found linked with alpha 2-macroglobulin and alpha1-antichymotrypsin, the two antiproteinases of blood. In a recent study, it was demonstrated that 3.66 mg/mL of bromelain was stable in artificial stomach juice after 4 hrs of reaction and also 2.44 mg/mL of bromelain remained in artificial blood after 4 hrs of reaction ²⁵.

Bromelain benefits

A wide range of therapeutic benefits have been claimed for bromelain, such as reversible inhibition of platelet aggregation, sinusitis, surgical traumas ²⁶, thrombophlebitis [inflammation of the wall of a vein with associated blood clot], pyelonephritis [inflammation of the kidney as a result of bacterial infection], angina pectoris [condition marked by severe pain in the chest due to blocked artery to the heart muscle], bronchitis [inflammation of the mucous membrane in the bronchial tubes] ²⁷, and enhanced absorption of drugs, particularly of antibiotics ¹⁸. Several studies have been carried out indicating that bromelain has useful phytomedical application. However, these results are yet to be amalgamated and critically compared so as to make out whether bromelain will gain wide acceptance as a phytomedical supplement ²⁸. Bromelain acts on fibrinogen giving products that are similar, at least in effect, to those formed by plasmin ²⁹. Experiment in mice showed that antacids such as sodium bicarbonate preserve the proteolytic activity of bromelain in the gastrointestinal tract ³⁰. Bromelain is considered as a food supplement and is freely available to the general public in health food stores and pharmacies in the USA and Europe ³¹. Existing evidence indicates that bromelain can be a promising candidate for the development of future oral enzyme therapies for cancer patients ³². Bromelain can be absorbed in human intestines without degradation and without losing its biological activity ³².

Bromelain on Rhinosinusitis

Chronic rhinosinusitis in adults is defined as sinonasal inflammation persisting for >12 weeks. Chronic rhinosinusitis in adults is characterized by nasal obstruction/congestion/blockage, anterior or posterior nasal mucopurulent, facial pain/pressure/fullness, and decreased/loss of sense of smell. Symptoms must be accompanied by objective findings including positive nasal endoscopy (purulence, edema) or positive imaging findings such as inflammation or mucosal changes within the sinuses. A systematic review ³³ of the evidence indicates that bromelain is helpful in relieving symptoms of acute nasal and sinus inflammation when used in combination with standard medications. In a study ³⁴ to quantity bromelain in rhinosinusal mucosa of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis and individuals without nasal and paranasal pathology. It was found that patients taking Bromelain 500 mg tablet twice daily was administered for 30 days has significant distribution of bromelain in the ethmoid sinus and nasal turbinates mucus of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis, indicating that Bromelain could be exploited for use as an anti-inflammatory agent in nasal and sinusal pathologies.

Anti-inflammatory activity of bromelain

Inflammation is pivotal in the development of cancer during cellular transformation, proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. It has been demonstrated that suppression of chronic inflammation may reduce the cancer incidence and also inhibit cancer progression ³⁵. Cyclooxigenase-2 (COX-2) is an important component of cancer-associated inflammation that is involved in the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE-2). PGE-2 is a pro-inflammatory lipid that also acts as an immunosuppressant, as well as a promoter of tumor progression ³⁶. COX-2 converts arachidonic acid into PGE-2 and promotes tumor angiogenesis and cancer progression ³⁷. It has been shown that bromelain downregulates COX-2 and PGE-2 expression levels in murine microglial cells and human monocytic leukemia cell lines ³⁸. Bromelain activates the inflammatory mediators, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, interferon (INF)-γ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in mouse macrophage and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells ³⁹. These results indicated that bromelain potentially activates the healthy immune system in association with the rapid response to cellular stress. Conversely, bromelain reduces IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α secretion when immune cells are already stimulated in the condition of inflammation-induced over production of cytokines ⁴⁰. Studies have shown that bromelain reduced the expression of INF-γ and TNF-α in inflammatory bowel disease ⁴¹. A study demonstrated that bromelain diminished the cell damaging effect of advanced glycation end products by proteolytic degradation of receptor of advanced glycation end products ⁴¹ and controlled the inflammation ⁴¹. The cell surface marker, cluster of differentiation (CD)44 is expressed by cancer and immune cells directly involved in cancer growth and metastasis. Furthermore, CD44 regulates lymphocyte requirement at the site of inflammation ⁴². Bromelain was shown to reduce the level of CD44 expression on the surface of mouse and human tumor cells, and regulate lymphocyte homing and migration to the sites of inflammation ⁴³. Furthermore, bromelain modulates the expression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, one of the major regulators of inflammation in patients affected by osteomyelofibrosis and rheumatoid arthritis ⁴⁴. There are various studies that report the immunomodulatory effect of bromelain ⁴⁵. Bromelain activates natural killer cells and augments the production of granulocyte-macrophage-colony stimulating factor, IL-2, IL-6 and decreases the activation of T-helper cells ⁴⁶. Thus, bromelain decreases the majority of inflammatory mediators and has demonstrated a significant role as an anti-inflammatory agent in various conditions ⁴⁷.

Anticancer activity of bromelain

Recent studies have shown that bromelain has the capacity to modify key pathways that support malignancy. Presumably, the anticancerous activity of bromelain is due to its direct impact on cancer cells and their micro-environment, as well as on the modulation of immune, inflammatory, and hemostatic systems ⁴⁸. Most of the in vitro (test tubes) and in vivo (animals) studies on anticancer activity of bromelain are concentrated on mouse and human cells, both cancerous and normal, treated with bromelain preparations. In an experiment conducted by Beez et al ⁴⁹ chemically induced mouse skin papillomas were treated with bromelain and they observed that it reduced tumor formation, tumor volume and caused apoptotic cell death. In one study related to bromelain treatment of gastric carcinoma Kato III cell lines, significant reduction of cell growth was observed ⁵⁰ while in another study bromelain reduced the invasive capacity of glioblastoma cells and reduced de novo protein synthesis ⁵¹. Bromelain is found to increase the expression of p53 and Bax in mouse skin, the well-known activators of apoptosis ⁵². Bromelain also decreases the activity of cell survival regulators such as Akt and Erk, thus promoting apoptotic cell death in tumours. Different studies have demonstrated the role of NF-κB, Cox-2, and PGE2 as promoters of cancer progression. Evidence shows that the signaling and overexpression of NF-κB plays an important part in many types of cancers ⁵³. Cox-2, a multiple target gene of NF-κB, facilitates the conversion of arachidonic acid into PGE2 and thus promotes tumour angiogenesis and progression ⁵⁴. It is considered that inhibiting NF-κB, Cox-2, and PGE2 activity has potential as a treatment of cancer. Bromelain was found to downregulate NF-κB and Cox-2 expression in mouse papillomas ⁵² and in models of skin tumourigenesis ⁵⁵. Bromelain was also shown to inhibit bacterial endotoxin (LPS)-induced NF-κB activity as well as the expression of PGE2 and Cox-2 in human monocytic leukemia and murine microglial cell lines ⁵⁶. Bromelain markedly has in vivo antitumoural activity for the following cell lines: P-388 leukemia, sarcoma (S-37), Ehrlich ascetic tumour, Lewis lung carcinoma, and ADC-755 mammary adenocarcinoma. In these studies, intraperitoneal administration of bromelain after 24 hours of tumour cell inoculation resulted in tumour regression ⁵².

Antimicrobial activity

Bromelain supplementation protects animals against diarrhea caused by bacterial enterotoxins from Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae ⁵⁷. Bromelain acts as anti-adhesion agent by modifying the receptor attachment sites and influences the intestinal secretory signaling pathways ⁵⁸. In addition to its ability to counter certain effects of particular intestinal pathogens and its synergism with antibiotics, these two mechanisms are indicative of the benefits of bromelain against specific infections. In vitro evidence also suggests that bromelain exerts antihelminthic activity against the gastrointestinal nematodes, Trichuris muris and Heligmosomoides polygyrus ⁵⁹. Conversely, bromelain acts as an anti-fungal agent by stimulating phagocytosis and respiratory burst killing of Candida albicans when incubated with trypsin in vitro ⁶⁰. Pityriasis lichenoides chronica is an infectious skin disease and bromelain reportedly caused complete resolution of this condition ⁶¹. Bromelain has been documented to increase blood and urine levels of certain antibiotics in humans ⁶². Combined bromelain and antibiotic therapy was shown to be more effective than antibiotics alone in pneumonia, bronchitis, cutaneous Staphylococcus infection, thrombophlebitis, cellulitis, pyelonephritis, and in perirectal and rectal abscesses ⁶³, sinusitis ⁶⁴ and urinary tract infections ⁶⁵. A combination of bromelain, trypsin, and rutin has been administered as an adjuvant therapy in combination with antibiotics for children with sepsis ⁶². A combination of bromelain with enzymes derived from Aspergillus niger improved protein utilization in elderly nursing home patients ⁶⁶. Another study demonstrated that bromelain, in combination with sodium alginate, sodium bicarbonate and essential oils, significantly improved dyspeptic symptoms ⁶⁷. In addition, bromelain has been administered successfully as a digestive enzyme to treat intestinal disorders, pancreatectomy and exocrine pancreas insufficiency ⁶⁸. Finally, the combination of ox bile, pancreatin, and bromelain is effective in lowering stool fat excretion in patients with pancreatic steatorrhea, resulting in symptomatic improvements in pain, flatulence and stool frequency ⁶⁹.

Bromelain on Cardiovascular and Circulation System

Bromelain prevents or minimizes the severity of angina pectoris and transient ischemic attack (TIA). It is useful in the prevention and treatment of thrombophlebitis. It may also break down cholesterol plaques and exerts a potent fibrinolytic activity. A combination of bromelain and other nutrients protect against ischemia/reperfusion injury in skeletal muscle ⁷⁰. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) include disorders of the blood vessels and heart, coronary heart disease (heart attacks), cerebrovascular disease (stroke), raised blood pressure (hypertension), peripheral artery disease, rheumatic heart disease, heart failure, and congenital heart disease ⁷¹. Stroke and heart disease are the main cause of death, about 65% of people with diabetes die from stroke or heart disease. Bromelain has been effective in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases as it is an inhibitor of blood platelet aggregation, thus minimizing the risk of arterial thrombosis and embolism ⁷². King et al. ⁷³ reported that administration of medication use to control the symptoms of diabetes, hypertension, and hypercholesteromia increased by 121% from 1988–1994 to 2001–2006 and was greater for patients with fewer healthy lifestyle habits. Bromelain supplement could reduce any of risk factors that contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease. In a recent research, Bromelain was found to attenuate development of allergic airway disease, while altering CD4+ to CD8+T lymphocyte populations. From this reduction in allergic airway disease outcomes it was suggested that bromelain may have similar effects in the treatment of human asthma and hypersensitivity disorders ⁷⁴. In another study, carried out by Juhasz et al., Bromelain was proved to exhibit the ability of inducing cardioprotection against ischemia-reperfusion injury through Akt/Foxo pathway in rat myocardium ⁷⁵.

Bromelain on Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis in Western countries; in USA prevalence of osteoarthritis ranges from 3.2 to 33% dependent on the joint ⁷⁶. A combination of bromelain, trypsin, and rutin was compared to diclofenac in 103 patients with osteoarthritis of the knee. After six weeks, both treatments resulted in significant and similar reduction in the pain and inflammation ⁷⁷. Bromelain is a food supplement that may provide an alternative treatment to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) ⁷⁸. It plays an important role in the pathogenesis of arthritis ⁷⁹. Bromelain has analgesic properties which are thought to be the result of its direct influence on pain mediators such as bradykinin ⁸⁰. The earliest reported studies investigating bromelain were a series of case reports on 28 patients, with moderate or severe rheumatoid or osteoarthritis ⁸¹.

In conclusion, bromelain appears to have potential for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis. However it is important to note that there are a number of methodological issues that are common to the studies reported, including the possibility of inadequate power, inadequate treatment periods, inadequate or non-existent follow-up to monitor possible adverse drug reactions. Furthermore, the optimum dosage for this condition remains unclear. A phase II clinical trial would be beneficial to identify the optimal dosage and to systematically monitor safety issues before a definitive efficacy study could be completed.

Bromelain on Immune System

Bromelain has been recommended as an adjuvant therapeutic approach in the treatment of chronic inflammatory, malignant, and autoimmune diseases ⁸². In vitro experiments have shown that Bromelain has the ability to modulate surface adhesion molecules on T cells, macrophages, and natural killer cells and also induce the secretion of IL-1β, IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα) by peripheral blood mononuclear cells ⁸³. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine and increased TNF-α production is found in serum, stools, and bowel mucosa in both inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) models ⁸⁴. Anti-TNF therapy has been confirmed to alleviate symptoms, heal mucosal ulcers, spare corticosteroid treatment, and decrease hospitalization costs. TNF-α leads to the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), which can transmigrate into the nucleus, and it binds to DNA response elements in gene promoter regions to control transcription of genes, such as inducible NO synthase (iNOS), cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX2), and myosin light chain kinase ⁸⁵. Both iNOS and COX2 are pro-inflammatory mediators which play crucial roles in inflammatory responses ⁸⁵. The expression and activity of myosin light chain kinase is increased in human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and associated with histological evidence of disease activity ⁸⁶. Myosin light chain kinase-induced phosphorylation of perijunctional actomyosin mediates tight junction loss, which triggers the initiation and development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) ⁸⁷. TNF-α exerts its biological function by binding to two kinds of TNF-α receptors (TNFRs), including TNFR1 and TNFR2. Epithelial TNFR1 and TNFR2 are relatively under-examined, but they have been implicated in epithelial apoptosis, proliferation, migration, and tight junction regulation ⁸⁸. Oral administration of bromelain relieved IBD symptoms ⁸⁹; however, the effect of bromelain on intestinal inflammation induced by chemical damage and its underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood.

Bromelain can block the Raf-1/extracellular-regulated-kinase- (ERK-) 2 pathways by inhibiting the T cell signal transduction ⁹⁰. Treatment of cells with bromelain decreases the activation of CD4 (+) T cells and reduce the expression of CD25 ⁹¹. Moreover, there is evidence that oral therapy with bromelain produces certain analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, which is one of the most common autoimmune diseases ⁹².

Bromelain on Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis

Bromelain influences blood coagulation by increasing the serum fibrinolytic ability and by inhibiting the synthesis of fibrin, a protein involved in blood clotting ⁹³. In rats, the reduction of serum fibrinogen level by bromelain is dose dependent. At a higher concentration of bromelain, both prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) are markedly prolonged ⁹⁴. In vitro and in vivo studies have suggested that bromelain is an effective fibrinolytic agent as it stimulates the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, resulting in increased fibrinolysis by degrading fibrin ⁹⁵.

Bromelain on Diarrhea

Evidence has suggested that bromelain counteracts some of the effects of certain intestinal pathogens like Vibrio cholera and Escherichia coli, whose enterotoxin causes diarrhoea in animals. Bromelain appears to exhibit this effect by interacting with intestinal secretory signaling pathways, including adenosine 3′ : 5′-cyclic monophosphatase, guanosine 3′ : 5′-cyclic monophosphatase, and calcium-dependent signaling cascades ⁹⁶. Other studies suggest a different mechanism of action. In E. coli infection, an active supplementation with bromelain leads to some antiadhesion effects which prevent the bacteria from attaching to specific glycoprotein receptors located on the intestinal mucosa by proteolytically modifying the receptor attachment sites ⁹⁷.

Bromelain in Surgery

Administration of bromelain before a surgery can reduce the average number of days for complete disappearance of pain and postsurgery inflammation ⁹⁸. Trials indicate that bromelain might be effective in reducing swelling, bruising, and pain in women having episiotomy ⁹⁹. Nowadays, bromelain is used for treating acute inflammation and sports injuries ⁷⁸.

Bromelain in Debridement Burns

The removal of damaged tissue from wounds or second/third degree burns is termed as debridement. Bromelain applied as a cream (35% bromelain in a lipid base) can be beneficial for debridement of necrotic tissue and acceleration of healing. Bromelain contains escharase which is responsible for this effect. Escharase is nonproteolytic and has no hydrolytic enzyme activity against normal protein substrate or various glycosaminoglycan substrates. Its activity varies greatly with different preparations ¹⁰⁰. In two different enzymatic debridement studies carried out in pig model, using different bromelain-based agents, namely, Debriding Gel Dressing (DGD) and Debrase Gel Dressing showed rapid removal of the necrotic layer of the dermis with preservation of the unburned tissues ¹⁰¹, ¹⁰². In another study on Chinese landrace pigs, enzymatic debridement using topical bromelain in incised wound tracks accelerated the recovery of blood perfusion, pO2 in wound tissue, controlled the expression of TNF-α, and raised the expression of TGT-β ¹⁰³. Enzymatic debridement using bromelain is better than surgical debridement as surgical incision is painful, nonselective and exposes the patients to the risk of repeated anaesthesia and significant bleeding ¹⁰⁴, ¹⁰⁵.

Bromelain side effects

Studies that have used a higher daily dose of bromelain to treat osteoarthritis [945 mg/day ¹⁰⁶; 1890 mg/day ¹⁰⁷] appear to be conflicting. The authors employing the highest dose reported that the medication was well tolerated; the dose of 945 mg/day, however, showed a higher incidence of adverse drug reactions and drop-outs. Adverse events that have been reported are mainly gastrointestinal (i.e. diarrhoea, nausea and flatulence), but have also included headache, tiredness, dry mouth, skin rash and allergic reactions (not specified) ¹⁰⁸.

There have been some reports of gastrointestinal problems, increased heart rate, and menstrual problems in people who have taken bromelain orally.

Allergic reactions may occur in individuals who are sensitive or allergic to pineapples or who may have other allergies.

According to Taussig et al. ¹⁰⁹ bromelain has very low toxicity with an LD50 (lethal doses) greater than 10 g/kg in mice, rates, and rabbits. Toxicity tests on dogs, with increasing level of bromelain up to 750 mg/kg administered daily, showed no toxic effects after six months. Dosages of 1500 mg/kg per day when administered to rats showed no carcinogenic or teratogenic effects and did not provoke any alteration in food intake, histology of heart, growth, spleen, kidney, or hematological parameters ¹¹⁰. Eckert et al. ¹¹¹ after giving bromelain (3000 FIP unit/day [FIP is an enzyme unit that produces a certain amount of enzymatic activity]) to human over a period of ten days found no significant changes in blood coagulation parameters.

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Is popcorn healthy

Popcorn or pop corn is a whole-grain food/snack that is included among foods recommended in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans to increase whole-grain consumption. A 100 gram air popped popcorn (no added salt or sugar) has 14.5 gram of dietary fiber (~50% daily recommended fiber intake) and the energy density of the 94% fat free popcorn (3.87 kcal/g) is 31% lower than that of potato chips (5.4 kcal/g).

Mean intake among consumers of popcorn was 38.8 g/day. Compared with non-consumers, popcorn consumers had approximately 250% higher intake of whole grains (2.5 vs 0.70 servings/day) and approximately 22% higher intake of fiber (18.1 vs 14.9 g/day) ¹. Small but significant differences were also observed for intake of carbohydrate, magnesium (higher intake in popcorn consumers), protein, niacin, and folate (lower intake in popcorn consumers). In addition, popcorn consumers had a greater intake of total grains and consumed fewer meat servings. Popcorn consumption was associated with increased intake of whole grains, dietary fiber, and certain other nutrients.

Popcorn is the 10th ranked savory snack in the U.S., eaten approximately nine times per person annually ² and has been shown to have a beneficial association with whole grain and fiber intake among those who consume it ¹.

Popcorn nutrition facts

Air-popped popcorn is naturally high in dietary fiber and antioxidants, low in calories and fat, and free of sugar and sodium. This can make it an attractive snack to people with dietary restrictions on the intake of calories, fat or sodium. For the sake of flavor, however, large amounts of fat, sugar, and sodium are often added to prepared popcorn, which can quickly convert it to a very poor choice for those on restricted diets.

Table 1. Popcorn, air-popped nutrition facts

Popcorn diet

Population data show that individuals who consume popcorn, compared to those who do not, have significantly greater intakes of whole grain, fiber, and magnesium ¹. In this study ⁴, low fat popcorn was shown to exert greater short-term satiety than potato chips. The satiety attribute, combined with popcorn’s other favorable characteristics of being a whole grain, high fiber, nutrient dense snack, support popcorn as beneficial snack choice in the context of healthy weight management. Several attributes of popcorn may contribute to its satiating effect at a relatively low energy level, for example, its low energy density ⁵. The energy density of the 94% fat free popcorn (3.7 kcal/g) is 31% lower than that of potato chips (5.4 kcal/g). Volume is likely another satiety-promoting quality of popcorn. Starch expansion during the popping process produces a foam-like matrix with a large surface-area to mass ratio. This trait, combined with popcorn’s irregular shape, leads to a food with a high volume per unit weight. High volume, due to incorporating air into food and due to irregular shape, has been shown to increase satiety ⁶, ⁷. Additionally, the proportionality of macronutrients may contribute to satiety, as prior research has shown that fat is less satiating than carbohydrate or protein ⁸.

Snacks that offer relatively higher levels of satiety may be beneficial for weight management provided the snack does not contribute to greater overall energy intake. One of the primary issues that has been identified in relationship to snacking, satiety and energy intake is the inability to fully compensate for the energy consumed as snacks ⁹. Evidence shows that snacks consumed in a non-hungry state do not impact satiety or reduce energy intake at the subsequent meals ¹⁰ and cross-sectional and longitudinal studies suggest that snacking is associated with weight gain and or obesity ¹¹. Energy dense, highly palatable foods such as cookies, cakes, desserts, and candies are associated with higher energy intakes in obese adults ¹². In contrast, compensation for popcorn resulting in overall energy intake not different from having no snack. This finding is supported by previous population-based research that shows popcorn consumption is not related to increased body mass index ¹. In addition, longitudinal ¹³ and weight loss interventions ¹⁴ indicate that snacking has a neutral or positive effect on energy intake or body mass index. For example, provision of up to three snacks daily as part a weight loss diet had a neutral effect on weight change ¹⁴, ¹⁵.

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5. Water incorporated into a food but not served with a food decreases energy intake in lean women. Rolls BJ, Bell EA, Thorwart ML. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 Oct; 70(4):448-55. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/4/448.long
6. Incorporation of air into a snack food reduces energy intake. Osterholt KM, Roe LS, Rolls BJ. Appetite. 2007 May; 48(3):351-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2129127
7. Energy density of foods affects energy intake across multiple levels of fat content in lean and obese women. Bell EA, Rolls BJ. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 Jun; 73(6):1010-8. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/73/6/1010.long
8. Fat, carbohydrate, and the regulation of energy intake. Rolls BJ, Hammer VA. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Nov; 62(5 Suppl):1086S-1095S. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7484926/
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11. Prospective study of self-reported usual snacking and weight gain in a Mediterranean cohort: the SUN project. Bes-Rastrollo M, Sanchez-Villegas A, Basterra-Gortari FJ, Nunez-Cordoba JM, Toledo E, Serrano-Martinez M. Clin Nutr. 2010 Jun; 29(3):323-30. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19748710/
12. Snacking frequency in relation to energy intake and food choices in obese men and women compared to a reference population. Bertéus Forslund H, Torgerson JS, Sjöström L, Lindroos AK. Int J Obes (Lond). 2005 Jun; 29(6):711-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15809664
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14. Should snacks be recommended in obesity treatment? A 1-year randomized clinical trial. Bertéus Forslund H, Klingström S, Hagberg H, Löndahl M, Torgerson JS, Lindroos AK. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2008 Nov; 62(11):1308-17. https://www.nature.com/articles/1602860
15. Effect of a post-dinner snack and partial meal replacement program on weight loss. Vander Wal JS, Waller SM, Klurfeld DM, McBurney MI, Cho S, Kapila M, Dhurandhar NV. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2006 Feb-Mar; 57(1-2):97-106. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16849118/

What is rhubarb

Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) is a species of plant in the family Polygonaceae. It is a herbaceous perennial growing from short, thick rhizomes. It produces large poisonous leaves that are somewhat triangular, with long fleshy edible stalks and small flowers grouped in large compound leafy greenish-white to rose-red inflorescences. Rhubarb is grown primarily for its fleshy stalks, technically known as petioles. The stalks are widely used as preserves and are also eaten raw, without problems.

In culinary use, fresh raw leaf stalks (petioles) are crisp (similar to celery, although they do not share the same family) with a strong, tart taste ¹. Most commonly, rhubarb stalks are cooked with sugar and used in pies, crumbles and other desserts. A number of varieties have been domesticated for human consumption, most of which are recognised as Rheum x hybridum by the Royal Horticultural Society.

For cooking, rhubarb stalks are often cut into small pieces and stewed (boiled in water) with added sugar, until soft. Little water is added, as rhubarb stalks already contain a great deal of water. Rhubarb should be processed and stored in containers which are unaffected by residual acid content, such as glass or stainless steel. Spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger are sometimes added. Stewed rhubarb or rhubarb sauce, like applesauce, is usually eaten cold. Pectin, or sugar with pectin, can be added to the mixture to make jams.

A similar preparation, thickened with cornstarch or flour, is used as filling for rhubarb pie, tarts, and crumbles, leading to the nickname “pie plant”.

In recent times rhubarb has often been paired with strawberries to make strawberry-rhubarb pie.

Rhubarb contains anthraquinones including rhein, and emodin and their glycosides (e.g. glucorhein), which impart cathartic and laxative properties. It is hence useful as a cathartic in case of constipation.

Figure 1. Rhubarb

Is rhubarb poisonous

Rhubarb leaves contain poisonous substances, including oxalic acid, which is a nephrotoxic (damaging or destructive to the kidneys) and corrosive acid that is present in many plants ². Humans have been poisoned after ingesting the leaves, a particular problem during World War I when the leaves were mistakenly recommended as a food source in Britain ³. The toxic rhubarb leaves have been used in flavoring extracts, after the oxalic acid is removed by treatment with precipitated chalk. Oxalic acid can also be found in the stalks of rhubarb, but the levels are too low to cause any bodily harm ⁴.

Poisonous ingredients include ⁵:

• Oxalic acid
• Anthraquinone glycosides (possible)

The LD50 (median lethal dose) for pure oxalic acid in rats is about 375 mg/kg body weight ⁶, or about 25 grams for a 65-kilogram (143 lb) human. Other sources give a much higher oral LDLo (lowest published lethal dose) of 600 mg/kg. While the oxalic acid content of rhubarb leaves can vary, a typical value is about 0.5%, so a rather unlikely 5 kg (for a 70 kg human) of the extremely sour leaves would have to be consumed to reach the LD50 of oxalic acid. Cooking the leaves with baking soda can make them more poisonous by producing soluble oxalates ⁷. However, the leaves are believed to also contain an additional, unidentified toxin ⁸, which might be an anthraquinone glycoside (also known as senna glycosides).

Rhubarb leaves poisoning

Rhubarb leaves poisoning occurs when someone eats pieces of leaves from the rhubarb plant.

Symptoms may include ⁹:

• Breathing difficulty
• Burning in the mouth
• Burning in the throat
• Coma
• Diarrhea
• Eye pain
• Kidney stones
• Nausea and vomiting
• Red-colored urine
• Seizures
• Stomach pain
• Weakness

Outlook (Prognosis) of rhubarb leaves poisoning

How well you do depends on the amount of poison swallowed and how quickly treatment is received. The faster you get medical help, the better the chance for recovery.

Symptoms last for 1 to 3 days and may require a hospital stay.

Serious poisonings can result in kidney failure. Deaths have been reported, but are rare.

DO NOT touch or eat any plant with which you are not familiar. Wash your hands after working in the garden or walking in the woods.

Rhubarb nutrition

Table 1. Rhubarb (raw) nutrition facts

Rhubarb health benefits

There are several active constituents known about Rhubarb, including anthraquinone derivatives, such as emodin, chrysophanol, rhein, physcion, and their glycoside compounds, and stilbene derivatives such as piceatannol, resveratrol, and their glycoside derivatives ¹¹. Besides, there are several isolated complex compounds (e.g., torachrysone-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, sulphated emodin glucoside, and piceatannol-4′-O-β-D-(6′′-O-p-coumaroyl)-glucopyranoside) ¹¹.

In 2015, researchers found that when a concentrated form of the chemical physcion (also reported to be called parietin) – which gives rhubarb stems their color – was added to leukaemia cells in the lab, half of them died within two days ¹². A modified form of physcion was also able to reduce tumor growth in mice injected with human cancer cells. This laboratory and animal study ¹² looked at the role of a protein called 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) in cancer cells. This protein is involved in a pathway that helps give cancer cells the energy and building blocks they need to divide rapidly and create new cancer cells, and so form tumors. Adding physcion to human leukaemia cells, lung cancer, or head and neck cancer cells grown in the lab, or human leukaemia cells taken directly from a patient, stopped them dividing as much as they normally would. At the highest concentration tested, physcion caused about half of the leukaemia cells taken directly from a patient to die over 24 to 48 hours. Physcion did not have this effect on normal human cells in the lab. The study found that a chemical found in rhubarb called physcion, and related chemicals, are able to reduce cancer cell growth in the lab and in mice. They do this by blocking a protein called 6PGD ¹². Overall, these findings open another avenue for investigating potential cancer treatments. Much more research will be needed to make sure these chemicals are effective and safe enough to progress to testing in humans. We will need to wait to see the results of these studies before we know whether these chemicals could become anti-cancer drugs in the future.

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What is curry powder

Curry powder is a spice mix of (most curry powder recipes include) curry leaves, coriander, turmeric, cumin, fenugreek, and chili peppers in their blends. Depending on the recipe, additional ingredients such as ginger, garlic, asafoetida, fennel seed, caraway, cinnamon, clove, mustard seed, green cardamom, black cardamom, nutmeg, white turmeric, curry leaf, long pepper, and black pepper may also be included ¹. There is little agreement about what actually constitutes a curry. Curry powders and curry pastes produced and consumed in India are extremely diverse; some red, some yellow, some brown; some with five spices and some with as many as 20 or more. Besides the previously mentioned spices, other commonly found spices in different curry powders in India are allspice, white pepper, ground mustard, ground ginger, cinnamon, roasted cumin, cloves, nutmeg, mace, green cardamom seeds or black cardamom pods, bay leaves and coriander seeds.

The term curry likely derives from kari, the word for “sauce” in Tamil, a South-Indian language. Perplexed by that region’s wide variety of savory dishes, 17th-century British traders lumped them all under the term curry. But the original curry predates Europeans’ presence in India by about 4,000 years. Villagers living at the height of the Indus civilization used three key curry ingredients—ginger, garlic, and turmeric—in their cooking. This proto-curry, in fact, was eaten long before Arab, Chinese, Indian, and European traders plied the oceans in the past thousand years.

Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii) [see Figure 2], popularly known in India as kariveppilai, karivepaaku or kari patta. Curry leaves were originally cultivated in India for its aromatic leaves and for ornament is normally used for natural flavoring in curries and sauces. Originated in Tarai regions of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is now widely found in all parts of India and it adorns every house yard of southern India and also it is now cultivated and distributes throughout the world. The curry leaves plant is used in Indian system of medicine to treat various ailments ². Parts of the plant have been used as raw material for the traditional medicine formulation in India. This plant is known to be the richest source of carbazole alkaloids. It has been reported by authors that carbazole alkaloids present in curry leaves and display various biological activities such as anti-tumor, anti-oxidative, anti-mutagenic and anti-inflammatory activities ³. Curry leaves and roots can be used to cure piles and allay heat of the body, thirst, inflammation and itching ⁴.

The aromatic curry leaves, which retains their flavor and other qualities even after drying, are slightly bitter, acrid, cooling, weakly acidic in tastes and are considered as a tonic, anthelmintic, analgesic, digestive, appetizing and are widely used in Indian cookery for flavoring food stuffs ⁵. The phytoconstituents isolated so far from the leaves are alkaloids viz., mahanine, koenine, koenigine, koenidine, girinimbiol, girinimibine, koenimbine, O-methyl murrayamine A, O-methyl mahanine, isomahanine, bismahanine, bispyrayafoline and other phytoconstituents such as coumarin glycoside viz., scopotin, murrayanine, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, carotene and oxalic acid ⁶. It also reported for anti-microbial, antioxidant ⁷. Essential oil composition of curry leaves has been studied by various workers ⁸. The essential oil from curry leaves yielded di-α-phellandrene, D-sabinene, D-α-pinene, dipentene, D-α-terpinol and caryophyllene ⁹. This essential oil from M. koenigii leaves is reported to possess antioxiant, antibacterial, antifungal, larvicidal, anticarcinogenic, hypoglycemic, anti-lipid peroxidative, hypolipidemic and antihypertensive activity ¹⁰.

Curry leaves have been reported to be effective in many diseased conditions ¹¹, ¹². Curry leaves may be medicinally useful for the treatment or prevention of diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease. Ingestion of curry leaves improved the plasma lipid profile in the rat feeding model ¹³. Curry leaves have also been promoted to treat both hypocholesterolemic effects and improved glycaemic status in obese mouse model ¹⁴. There are reports suggesting that the curry leaves possess anti-oxidative and anti-lipid per-oxidative actions ¹⁵. Thus, the leaves of the curry plant have the potential to provide protection against oxidative stress.

Figure 1. Curry powder

Figure 2. Curry leaves

Table 1. Curry powder nutrition facts

Table 2. Chemical composition (%) of the essential oil of curry leaves from south region of Tamilnadu, India 

Table 3. Curry leaves essential oil antibacterial activity compared with selected antibiotics tested on ten strains of bacterial pathogens 

Note: AMX10 = Amoxicillin (10mg/disc); CLR15 = Clarithromycin (15mg/disc); GEN10 = Gentamicin (10mg/disc); P10 = Penicillin (10mg/disc)

From the results outlined in table 3 above, the undiluted curry leaves essential oil exhibited strong antibacterial activity when tested with microorganisms. In comparison with the antibiotics as positive control they are expressing the remarkable antibacterial activities against Proteus mirabilis compared with Amoxicillin (10mg/disc), Staphylococcus aureus compared in Gentamicin (10mg/disc), Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis compared in Gentamicin (10mg/disc), Klebsiella pneumonia compared in Gentamicin (10mg/disc), Pseudomonas aeruginosa compared in Clarithromycin (15mg/disc), Enterobacter aerogenes compared in Gentamicin (10mg/disc) and the moderate level zone of inhibition observed against in Salmonella enterica compared in Gentamicin (10mg/disc), Streptococcus pyogenes compared in Penicillin (10mg/disc). And based on this research ¹⁷, it was concluded that the chemical composition and antioxidative properties of the essential leaf oil of curry leaves from South Tamilnadu, India, that linalool, elemol, geranyl acetate, myrcene, allo-Ocimene and α-terpinene are the main components with such capacity.

Curry powder health benefits

The most active component of turmeric is curcumin ¹⁸. Curcumin [1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadien-3,5-dione] is an orange–yellow crystalline powder – that gives a strong yellow color to the spice turmeric, is practically insoluble in water.

Turmeric is the powdered rhizome of Curcuma longa, a member of the ginger family and has been commonly used for flavor and color in food preparation in South Asia ¹⁹. In addition, it has been traditionally used as an herbal medicine to treat inflammatory and other disease conditions ¹⁹.

Turmeric is an ingredient of spice blends, mainly curry powder, which generally consists of turmeric, clove, paprika, ginger, cardamom, coriander, cumin, mace, pepper and cinnamon. Turmeric is commonly used as natural pigment (yellow 3) in the cosmetic and textile production but it is widely used in food industry. Indeed, turmeric is classified as an additive in E100 category and is used as food color additive in mustard, pastries, daily products and canned fish ²⁰. Furthermore, according to the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives ²¹ the admissible daily intake is 0–3 mg/kg body weight and it was established at the 61st JECFA in 2003.

Curcumin’s use for various disease indications is primarily due to its active biological functions, i.e., anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-Alzheimer, anti-tumor, anti-diabetic, and anti-rheumatic activities ²². In addition, curcumin has been proven as a hypoglycemic, hepato-, nephron-, cardio-, and neuro-protective molecule ²³. More importantly, this molecule also suppresses thrombosis and protects against myocardial infarction. It is, by far, the most prominent polyphenol, widely consumed on a daily basis along with food (in India, Eastern Asia, and some African countries), which leads to better compliance. Curcumin usage began in ancient days; however, in 1949, the first scientific evidence of its anti-bacterial activity at very low concentrations was reported in the journal “Nature” and extensive research began only after 1994.

The biological activities of curcumin have been studied extensively ²⁴. Curcumin is considered “generally recognized as safe (GRAS)” by the US Food Drug Administration ²⁵, ²⁶. Curcuma contains 60–70% carbohydrate, 8.6% protein, 5–10% fat, 2–7% fiber, 3–5% curcuminoids (50–70% curcumin) and up to 5% essential oils and resins ²⁷. The curcuminoid content in turmeric may vary between 2 and 9%, depending on geographical conditions ²⁸. The composition of curcuminoids is approximately 70% curcumin (curcumin I), 17% demethoxycurcumin (curcumin II), 3% bis-demethoxycurcumin (curcumin III) and the rest (10%) is called cyclocurcumin (curcumin IV) ²⁹ (Figure 3). However, the last compound has been associated with poor or non-biological activity ³⁰. The structure of curcumin (Figure 3) was first described in 1910 by Lampe and Milobedeska and proved to be diferuloylmethane ²⁸. Studies indicate that functional groups associated to curcumin chemical structure including bis-α, β−unsaturated β-diketone, two methoxy groups, two phenolic hydroxy groups and two double-conjugated bonds might play an essential role in antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory activities assigned to curcumin ³¹. Curcumin has keto-enol tautomers, of which keto form predominates in acid and neutral solutions and enol form in alkaline solutions.

Figure 3. Chemical structures and abundance of curcuminoids in turmeric that have therapeutic effects

Curcumin traditional uses in folk medicine and biological properties

Curcuminoids have been consumed as therapeutic infusions over the centuries worldwide. In Ayurvedic medicine, curcumin is a well-documented treatment for various respiratory conditions such as, asthma, bronchial hyperactivity and allergy, as well as for liver disorders, anorexia, rheumatism, diabetic wounds, runny nose, cough and sinusitis ³². In traditional Chinese medicine curcumin has been used to treat diseases associated with abdominal pain ³³. In ancient Hindu medicine, it was used to treat sprains and swelling ³². In Oriental cultures, it has traditionally been used as good therapeutic alternative, particularly as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and antimicrobial reagent. In fact, it has been scientifically proven that curcumin is indeed antioxidant ³⁴, anti-inflammatory ³⁵ and antibacterial ³⁶. Moreover, it has also been used because of its hepatoprotective ³⁷, thrombosuppressive, neuroprotective ³⁸, cardioprotective ³⁴, antineoplasic ³⁹, antiproliferative ⁴⁰, hypoglycemic and antiarthritic effect ³³. Curcumin has also been used for the treatment of intestinal parasites and as a remedy for poisoning, snakebites and various other complaints ⁴¹.

Therapeutic Applications of Curcumin Nanoformulations

From the literature, it is evident that poor solubility, bioavailability, and pharmacokinetics are major barriers to the clinical translational use of curcumin. Various strategies have been developed to overcome these problems. In numerous in vitro (test tube) and in vivo (animal) studies, nanoformulations of curcumin exhibited superior therapeutic benefits over the free curcumin ⁴² in a side-by-side setting. Recent clinical trials demonstrate that curcumin nanoformulations exhibit improved bioavailability of curcumin and thus provide a strong rationale for future clinical use once additional important mechanistic perspectives are understood. In this section, we precisely discuss the use of various curcumin nanoformulations in a number of diseases. Although, there is no report out there demonstrating clinical benefit of curcumin nanoformulation, but since curcumin nanoformulation(s) have shown superior outcomes in both in vitro and in vivo studies, it is believed that greater effects can be expected from curcumin nanoformulations over free curcumin. Clinical trials confirm that curcumin nanoformulations improve curcumin bioavailability and are systemically safe ⁴³. However, testing of these formulations as therapeutic modalities is required and is crucial for future clinical trials and before human therapeutic use.

Several in vitro investigations demonstrate that curcumin inhibits cancer cells growth at concentration of 5–30 μM ⁴⁴, resembling cisplatin and gem-citabine (chemotherapeutic drug) concentrations. Because of its exceptional medicinal value, a total of 68 clinical trials have been registered with clinicaltrials.gov in which the majority of them are targeting cancer.

Curcumin Toxicity and Side Effects

Turmeric and its constituents play a vital role in the management of various diseases including cancer. Toxicity and lethal dose level of curcumin are important before using in health management. Several studies were performed to check the safe dose of curcumin in animal model studies. No significant toxicity was observed of turmeric and its constituent curcumin at various doses. An important study in which animals were fed curcumin with a dose of 1.8 gms/kg and 0.8 mg/kg in rat and monkey, respectively, for 90 days showed no adverse effects ⁴⁵. An important study in which animals were fed curcumin with a dose of 1.8 gms/kg and 0.8 mg/kg in rat and monkey, respectively, for 90 days showed no adverse effects ⁴⁵. Curcumin is remarkably well tolerated, but its bioavailability is poor. It does not show to be toxic to humans ⁴⁶ even at high doses. Earlier studies concluded that combination therapy using 8 g oral curcumin daily with gemcitabine-based chemotherapy was safe and feasible in patients with pancreatic cancer ⁴⁷ and other study concluded that oral curcumin is well tolerated and, despite its limited absorption, showed biological activity ⁴⁸. An important study based on advanced pancreatic cancer patients showed that 5 patients out of 17 patients receiving curcumin with dose 8 gms/day with gemcitabine showed intractable abdominal pain after a few days to 2 weeks of curcumin intake ⁴⁹.

A study reported that hepatotoxicity was seen in mice fed with whole turmeric (0.2%, 1%, 5%) or ethanolic turmeric extract (ETE; 0.05%, 0.25%) for 14 days ⁵⁰. Earlier report based on curcumin has shown that curcumin doses ranging from 0.45 to 3.6 gms/day for 1 to 4 months showed nausea and diarrhea and also caused an increase in serum alkaline phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase contents ⁵¹.

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Healthy cereal

With shelves stacked top to bottom with hundreds of brightly colored boxes competing for your attention, supermarket breakfast cereal aisles can sometimes feel like walking through a minefield.

Make the wrong choice and you or your child could end up with a breakfast cereal high in sugar, fat or salt.

If eaten too often, this can contribute to weight gain and health problems, including tooth decay and high blood pressure.

But whether it’s puffed, baked or flaked, cereal can still form part of a healthy, balanced diet.

The role of breakfast cereals in a balanced diet has been recognized for many years ¹. Dietary guidelines note that the high nutrient density of breakfast cereals (especially those that are whole grain or high in cereal fiber) makes them an important source of key nutrients ². In addition to providing an important source of vitamins and minerals, breakfast cereals are also potentially important sources of antioxidants ³ and phytoestrogens ⁴ and are one of the most important sources of whole grains ⁵.

Is cereal good for you ?

Table 1 summarizes findings from 11 intervention studies that incorporated additional breakfast cereal into subjects’ diets and shows the nutrients that were increased, decreased, or remained unchanged in the subjects’ total daily intakes. Those studies generally show an increase in vitamin and mineral intakes, and decreases in fat, but no consistent effect on daily energy, protein, or carbohydrate intakes.

The results from 51 cross-sectional studies and the randomized controlled trials reported on the nutritional impact of regular breakfast cereal consumption in those who eat breakfast.

The results from those cross-sectional studies and the randomized controlled trials showed children and adolescents who consume breakfast cereals regularly have daily diets that are ⁶:

• Higher in percentage of energy (%E) from carbohydrate, total sugars, dietary fiber, vitamins A and D, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, folate, calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc;
• No different in total energy intake, % energy from protein, or sodium; and
• Lower in % energy from fat.

Many of the micronutrient differences are related to the fortification profile of the breakfast cereals, but the increased milk intake would contribute significantly to the higher daily calcium and riboflavin intakes. In both Australia and the United States, approximately one-quarter of all milk consumed by children and adolescents is added to breakfast cereal ⁷.

Other findings from the studies show that children and adolescents who eat breakfast cereal regularly:

• are less likely to have vitamin and mineral intakes below the recommended daily requirements, especially for calcium ⁸, ⁹;
• have better diets overall, measured by the Healthy Eating Index score ¹⁰;
• have lower daily cholesterol intakes ¹¹; and
• have better nutritional status (assessed by blood measures), especially for the vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, and pyridoxine ¹² and iron ¹³.

Table 1. Intervention trials with added breakfast cereal consumption: impact on daily nutrient intake

Cereal nutrition facts

In food-insecure children in the United States, the percentage whose daily nutrient intake was below the Estimated Average Requirement was higher in those who did not consume breakfast cereal for several key nutrient, including 62.7% vs. 39.9% for calcium, 26.3% vs. 19.4% for magnesium, 33.4% vs 8.1% for vitamin A, 15.4% vs. 3.2% for zinc, and 9.4% vs. 0.1% for folate, respectively ¹⁰. The difference in total milk consumption (345 vs. 142 g for cereal consumers vs. non consumers) was significantly greater than the difference in food-secure children (324 vs. 161g)—that is, ready-to-eat breakfast cereal was even more important in food-insecure children in improving milk intakes. Comparing Healthy Eating Index scores, both food-secure and food-insecure children achieved better scores when they consumed breakfast cereals, but the improvement in total grain intake was significantly greater for food-insecure children ²⁴.

In the 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey, breakfast cereals as consumed with milk and sugar contributed only 6–9% of total energy intakes of children and adolescents but provided >25% of the Recommended Dietary Intake (RDI) for thiamin, riboflavin, and iron (for boys) and >10% of the RDI for niacin, folate (for boys), calcium, iron (for girls), and magnesium ²⁵. In the 2007 Australian National Children’s Nutrition and Activity Survey, ready-to-eat breakfast cereal consumption provided 10% of total daily fiber intake ²⁶.

Adults who consume breakfast cereals regularly have daily diets that are:

• higher in % energy from carbohydrate, total sugars, dietary fiber, vitamins A and D, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, folate, calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc;
• no different in total energy intake, sodium, or %E from protein; and
• lower in % energy from fat.

The latest national survey from the United Kingdom found that whereas breakfast cereals contribute 3–5% of the daily energy intake and 2–5% of dietary fiber intake, they provide only 1% of fat and 1–2% of sodium in the total diet ¹. Similarly, breakfast cereals contribute only 2.1–2.6% of total sodium intake in adults in the United States ²⁷ and <2.5% in Australia ²⁸.

Other findings show that adults who eat breakfast cereal regularly:

• are less likely to have vitamin and mineral intakes below the recommended daily requirements, especially for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin C, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and fiber ⁷;
• have better diets overall, measured by the Healthy Eating Index ²⁹; and
• have better nutritional status (assessed by blood measures), especially for the vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, and folate ²¹.

Those consuming whole-grain and high-fiber breakfast cereals, compared with those consuming other breakfast cereals, had significantly higher daily intakes of % energy from protein, fiber, niacin, folate, calcium, and zinc ³⁰; however, whole-grain cereal intake in particular is likely to be a marker of a healthy lifestyle and therefore potentially subject to residual confounding.

How many calories should breakfast provide ?

A helpful rule of thumb to maintain a healthy weight is to follow the 400-600-600 kcal approach.

That means having about:

• 400kcal for breakfast (including any drinks and accompaniments)
• 600kcal for lunch (including any drinks and accompaniments)
• 600kcal for dinner (including any drinks and accompaniments)

That leaves you with just enough left over to enjoy a few healthy drinks and snacks throughout the day. This advice is based on a adult’s daily recommended calorie intake of 2,000kcal.

You might get about 150kcal from a 40g serving of cereal. You could add a medium sliced banana and 200ml of semi-skimmed milk, which altogether would provide about 350kcals.

You need fuel in the morning, and starting the day with a filling breakfast can help you avoid reaching for a less healthy mid-morning snack to keep you going until lunch.

How to find the best healthy cereal

Nutrition labels on the back or side of packaging

Nutrition labels are often displayed as a panel or grid on the back or side of packaging. For example, the Figure 1 below shows the nutrition labels from some breakfast cereal boxes.

This type of label includes information on energy (kJ/kcal), fat, saturates (saturated fat), carbohydrate, sugars, protein and salt.

It may also provide additional information on certain nutrients, such as fiber. All nutrition information is provided per 100 grams and sometimes per portion or per serving size.

Figure 1. Nutrition Facts from some breakfast cereals

Reading nutrition labels

Food and nutrition labels can help you choose between brands and avoid breakfast cereals high in sugar, fat and salt.

All nutrition information is provided per 100g and per serving, which can be helpful when comparing one cereal with another.

Some brands also use red, amber and green color coding on the front of the packet, sometimes known as traffic lights. The more greens on the label, the healthier the choice.

Most pre-packed foods have a nutrition label on the back or side of the packaging. These labels include information on energy in kilojoules (kJ) and kilocalories (kcal), usually referred to as calories.

They also include information on fat, saturates (saturated fat), carbohydrate, sugars, protein and salt. All nutrition information is provided per 100 grams and sometimes per portion of the food.

Supermarkets and food manufacturers now highlight the energy, fat, saturated fat, sugars and salt content on the front of the packaging, alongside the reference intake for each of these.

You can use nutrition labels to help you choose a more balanced diet.

For a Balanced diet:

• Eat at least five portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables every day
• Base meals on potatoes, bread, rice, pasta or other starchy carbohydrates – choose wholegrain or higher fibre where possible
• Have some dairy or dairy alternatives, such as soya drinks and yogurts – choose lower-fat and lower-sugar options
• Eat some beans, pulses, fish, eggs, meat and other protein – aim for two portions of fish every week, one of which should be oily, such as salmon or mackerel
• Choose unsaturated oils and spreads, and eat them in small amounts
• Drink plenty of fluids – the government recommends 6 to 8 cups or glasses a day

If you’re having foods and drinks that are high in fat, salt and sugar, have these less often and in small amounts.

Try to choose a variety of different foods from the four main food groups. Most people in America eat and drink too many calories, too much fat, sugar and salt, and not enough fruit, vegetables, oily fish or fiber.

How do I know if a food is high in fat, saturated fat, sugar or salt ?

There are guidelines to tell you if a food is high in fat, saturated fat, salt or sugar, or not. These are:

Total fat

• High: more than 17.5g of fat per 100g
• Low: 3g of fat or less per 100g

Saturated fat

• High: more than 5g of saturated fat per 100g
• Low: 1.5g of saturated fat or less per 100g

Sugars

• High: more than 22.5g of total sugars per 100g
• Moderate: between 5g to 22.5 g of total sugars per 100g
• Low: 5g of total sugars or less per 100g

Salt

• High: more than 1.5g of salt per 100g (or 0.6g sodium)
• Low: 0.3g of salt or less per 100g (or 0.1g sodium)

For example, if you are trying to cut down on saturated fat, limit your consumption of foods that have more than 5g of saturated fat per 100g.

If you’re trying to cut down on sugar, you should avoid foods that have more than 22.5g of sugars per 100g.

Some nutrition labels on the back or side of packaging also provide information about reference intakes.

Reference intakes explained

You’ll see reference intakes referred to on food labels. They show you the maximum amount of calories and nutrients you should eat in a day.

• Nutrition labels can also provide information on how a particular food or drink product fits into your daily diet.
• Reference intakes are guidelines about the approximate amount of particular nutrients and energy required for a healthy diet.

Daily reference intakes for the average adult aged 19 to 64 are:

• Energy: 8,400 kJ/2,000kcal
• Total fat: less than 70g
• Saturates: less than 20g
• Carbohydrate: at least 260g
• Total sugars: 90g
• Protein: 50g
• Fiber: 35g
• Salt: less than 2.3g

The reference intake for total sugars includes sugars from milk and fruit, as well as added sugar.

Reference intakes aren’t meant to be targets. They just give you a rough idea of how much energy you should be eating each day and how much fat, sugar, salt and so on.

Unless the label says otherwise, reference intakes are based on an average-sized adult doing an average amount of physical activity.

This is to reduce the risk of people with lower energy requirements eating too much, and to make sure information on labels is clear and consistent.

Where to find reference intakes on food packs

Most of the big supermarkets and many food manufacturers also display nutritional information on the front of pre-packed food. This is very useful when you want to compare different food products at a glance.

If you look closely at food packaging, you’ll see that it usually tells you what percentage of your daily reference intakes each portion of that food contains.

Front-of-pack labels, such as the label in the above image, usually give a quick guide to:

• energy
• fat content
• saturated fat content
• sugars content
• salt content

These labels provide information on the number of grams of fat, saturated fat, sugars and salt, and the amount of energy (in kJ and kcal) in a serving or portion of the food.

• But be aware that the manufacturer’s idea of a portion may be different from yours.

Some front-of-pack nutrition labels also provide information about reference intakes.

Color-coded nutritional information, as shown in Figure 2. below, tells you at a glance if the food has high, medium or low amounts of fat, saturated fat, sugars and salt.

• Red means high
• Amber means medium
• Green means low

In short, the more green on the label, the healthier the choice. If you buy a food that has all or mostly green on the label, you know straight away that it’s a healthier choice.

Amber means neither high nor low, so you can eat foods with all or mostly amber on the label most of the time.

But any red on the label means the food is high in fat, saturated fat, salt or sugars, and these are the foods we should cut down on. Try to eat these foods less often and in small amounts.

Figure 2. Reference intakes on food packs 

For example, the label above, taken from a box of pizza, shows that per half (1/2) slice of pizza will provide you with 4.7g of sugars, which is 6% of your daily reference intake for sugars.

The red color shows you that the pizza are high in saturated fat and salt.

Each pizza also contains 10.3g of saturated fat, which is 52% of your reference intake for saturated fat.

The amber color tells you that the pizza slices contain a medium amount (20.3g per 100 g of pizza) of fat.

Green means a food is low in a particular nutrient. These pizza slices, for example, are low in added sugars.

Ingredients list

Most pre-packed food products also have a list of ingredients on the packaging or an attached label. The ingredients list can also help you work out how healthy the product is.

Ingredients are listed in order of weight, so the main ingredients in the packaged food always come first. That means that if the first few ingredients are high-fat ingredients, such as cream, butter or oil, then the food in question is a high-fat food.

Figure 3. Breakfast cereal ingredients list (Oatmeal Crisp cereal)

What is dietary fiber ?

Dietary fiber, also known as roughage or bulk, is the part of a plant that the body doesn’t absorb during digestion. Fibre is the part of food that is not digested in the small intestine. Dietary fibre moves largely unchanged into the large intestine or colon where it is fermented by friendly bacteria that live there. The scientific community define dietary fibre as intrinsic plant cell wall polysaccharides of vegetables, fruits and whole-grains, the health benefits of which have been clearly established, rather than synthetic, isolated or purified oligosaccharides and polysaccharides with diverse, and in some cases unique, physiological effects ³¹. Generally speaking, dietary fiber is the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates, that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Fiber can be soluble, which means it dissolves in water, or insoluble.

Dietary fiber and whole grains contain a unique blend of bioactive components including resistant starches, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals and antioxidants. As a result, research regarding their potential health benefits has received considerable attention in the last several decades. Epidemiological and clinical studies demonstrate that consumption of dietary fiber and whole grain intake is inversely related to obesity ³², type two diabetes ³³, cancer ³⁴ and cardiovascular disease ³⁵.

• Eating fiber and wholegrain foods is linked to a lower risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes and heart disease, and may also reduce the risk of bowel cancer.

• Eating high fiber foods can also help prevent constipation – this in turn can help to prevent hemorrhoids.

• Because high fiber foods are filling they may also make it easier to stay at a healthy weight.

• Foods high in fiber are generally good sources of vitamins and minerals, as well as other important nutrients.

How much fiber do you need ?

The recommendations for fiber intake for adults for most European countries and for countries like Australia, New Zealand and the USA are in the order of 30–35 g/d for men and 25–32 g/d for women. Overall average intakes do not reach this level of intake for any country.

For children, recommendations vary quite markedly from country to country; for example, for those aged 10–12 years, France recommends 5+age, equivalent to 15–17 g/d, for Poland, 19 g/d, for Australia and New Zealand, 20 g/d for girls and 24 g/d for boys (for 9–13 years) and for the USA, 26 g/d for girls and 31 g/d for boys (for 9–13 years). Other countries have no official recommendation for children. Hence it is difficult to say if recommendations are being met overall, although for most countries, intakes are lower than the recommendation, with few reaching an average intake of 20 g/d for boys or 18 g/d for girls. For teenagers, recommendations are similar or slightly higher than for younger children.

Most Americans eat less than this. Getting sufficient fiber isn’t just about adding unprocessed wheat bran to breakfast cereal – it’s important to include different types of fiber from a variety of plant foods.

To get enough fibre every day, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ³⁶ recommends that an individual eats:

• at least 4 serves of wholegrain or wholemeal foods every day (or ensure about half of your daily serves of breads and cereals are wholegrain or wholemeal varieties)
• at least 2 serves of fruit daily
• 5 serves of vegetables daily including legumes (also known as ‘pulses’)
• wholefoods rather than dietary fiber supplements as the benefits of fibre from food may be from the combination of nutrients in food working together.

Table 2 Below is an example of how an adult may meet their daily dietary fiber requirements:

How much sugar is good for me ?

The health department recommends that free sugars – sugars added to food or drinks, and sugars found naturally in honey, syrups, and unsweetened fruit and vegetable juices, smoothies and purées – shouldn’t make up more than 5% of the energy (calories) you get from food and drink each day.

Table 3. Current Guidelines for Sugar Intake

The American Heart Association ³⁸ recommends no more than half of your daily discretionary calorie allowance come from added sugars. Your daily discretionary calorie allowance consists of calories available after meeting nutrient needs. This is no more than 100 calories per day for most American women and no more than 150 per day for men (or about 6 teaspoons a day for women and 9 teaspoons a day for men).

This means:

• Adults should have no more than 30g of free sugars a day, (roughly equivalent to seven sugar cubes).
• Children aged 7 to 10 should have no more than 24g of free sugars a day (six sugar cubes).
• Children aged 4 to 6 should have no more than 19g of free sugars a day (five sugar cubes).
• There is no guideline limit for children under the age of 4, but it’s recommended they avoid sugar-sweetened drinks and food with sugar added to it. Find out more about what to feed young children.

Free sugars are found in foods such as sweets, cakes, biscuits, chocolate, and some fizzy drinks and juice drinks. These are the sugary foods we should cut down on. For example, a can of cola can have as much as nine cubes of sugar – more than the recommended daily limit for adults.

Products are considered to either be high or low in sugar if they fall above or below the following thresholds:

• High: more than 22.5g of total sugars per 100g
• Medium: more than 5g but less than or equal to 22.5g of sugar per 100g
• Low: 5g or less of total sugars per 100g

If the amount of sugars per 100g is between these figures, that is regarded as a medium level.

Figure 4. Carbohydrate and sugar content food label

The “Total Sugars” figure describes the total amount of sugars from all sources – free sugars, plus those from milk, and those present in fruit and vegetables.

For example, plain yogurt may contain as much as 8g per serving, but none of these are free sugars, as they all come from milk.

The same applies to an individual portion of fruit. An apple might contain around 11g of total sugar, depending on the size of the fruit selected, the variety and the stage of ripeness. However, sugar in fruit is not considered free sugars unless the fruit is juiced or puréed.

This means food containing fruit or milk will be a healthier choice than one containing lots of free sugars, even if the two products contain the same total amount of sugar. You can tell if the food contains lots of added sugars by checking the ingredients list.

Sometimes you will see a figure just for “Carbohydrate” and not for “Carbohydrate (of which sugars)”. The “Carbohydrate” figure will also include starchy carbohydrates, so you can’t use it to work out the sugar content. In this instance, check the ingredients list to see if the food is high in added sugar.

Ingredients list

You can get an idea of whether a food is high in free sugars by looking at the ingredients list on the packaging.

Sugars added to foods and drinks must be included in the ingredients list, which always starts with the ingredient that there’s the most of. This means that if you see sugar near the top of the list, the food is likely to be high in free sugars.

Watch out for other words used to describe the sugars added to food and drinks, such as cane sugar, honey, brown sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice concentrate/purées, corn syrup, fructose, sucrose, glucose, crystalline sucrose, nectars (such as blossom), maple and agave syrups, dextrose, maltose, molasses and treacle.

No added sugar or unsweetened

• “No added sugar” or “unsweetened” refer to sugar or sweeteners that are added as ingredients. They do not mean that the food contains no sugar.

The ingredients lists on food products with “no added sugar” and “unsweetened” labels will tell you what ingredients have been used, including what types of sweetener and sugar. You can often find information about how much sugar there is in the food in the nutrition label.

No added sugar

• This usually means that the food has not had sugar added to it as an ingredient.

A food that has “no added sugar” might still taste sweet and can still contain sugar.

• Sugars occur naturally in food such as fruit and milk. But you don’t need to cut down on these types of sugar: it is food containing added sugars that youe should be cutting down on.

Just because a food contains “no added sugar”, this does not necessarily mean it has a low sugar content. The food may contain ingredients that have a naturally high sugar content (such as fruit), or have added milk, which contains lactose, a type of sugar that occurs naturally in milk.

Unsweetened

This usually means that no sugar or sweetener has been added to the food to make it taste sweet. This doesn’t necessarily mean that the food will not contain naturally occurring sugars found in fruit or milk.

Sugar by Any Other Name

You don’t always see the word “sugar” on a food label. It sometimes goes by another name, like these:

• White sugar
• Brown sugar
• Raw sugar
• Agave nectar
• Brown rice syrup
• Corn syrup
• Corn syrup solids
• Coconut sugar
• Coconut palm sugar
• High-fructose corn syrup
• Invert sugar
• Dextrose
• Anhydrous dextrose
• Crystal dextrose
• Dextrin
• Evaporated cane juice
• Fructose sweetener
• Liquid fructose
• Glucose
• Lactose
• Honey
• Malt syrup
• Maple syrup
• Molasses
• Pancake syrup
• Sucrose
• Trehalose
• Turbinado sugar
• Isoglucose
• Levulose

Watch out for items that list any form of sugar in the first few ingredients, or have more than 4 total grams of sugar.

Best carbs to eat for weight loss

Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) ³⁹, which looks at food consumption in the US, shows that most of us should also be eating more fiber and starchy foods and fewer sweets, chocolates, biscuits, pastries, cakes and soft drinks with added sugar. These are usually high in sugar and calories, which can increase the risk of tooth decay and contribute to weight gain if you eat them too often, while providing few other nutrients.

It’s important to choose carbohydrates wisely. Your best carbohydrate-containing foods are nutrient-packed foods in several of the basic food groups: fruits, vegetables, grains, and milk and milk products. Choosing these foods within your calorie requirements daily may help your heart stay healthy and reduce your risk for chronic disease.

Fruit, vegetables, pulses and starchy foods (especially wholegrain varieties) provide a wider range of nutrients (such as vitamins and minerals) which can benefit our health. The fiber in these foods can help to keep your bowels healthy and adds bulk to your meal, helping you to feel full.

Cutting out a whole food group (such as starchy foods) as some diets recommend could put your health at risk because as well as cutting out the body’s main source of energy you’d be cutting back essential nutrients like B vitamins, zinc and iron from your diet.

Here’s what you need to know:

• Choose fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, and whole grains often.
• Focus on fruits: Eat a variety of fruits. Make most of your fruit choices fresh, frozen, canned, or dried, rather than fruit juice.
• Vary your veggies:
  • Eat more dark green veggies, such as broccoli, kale, and other dark leafy greens. And try more orange veggies, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, and winter squash.
  • Legumes—such as dry beans and peas—are especially rich in dietary fiber and should be consumed several times per week.
• Make at least half your grains whole grains: Eat at least 3 ounces daily of whole grains. Examples of whole grains are whole-grain cereals, breads, crackers, and pasta. Other examples are brown and wild rice. One slice (1 ounce) of whole-grain bread, 1/2 cup brown rice, and 1/2 cup of oatmeal is equivalent to 3 ounces of whole grains. If you eat a 2,000-calorie diet, you will need approximately each day: 2 to 2 1/2 cups of fruit, 2 to 2 1/2 cups of vegetables, and 6 to 8 ounces of grains (at least 4 ounces should be whole grains). In addition, you should eat nuts, seeds, and legumes 4 to 5 times per week.

Many packaged foods have fiber information on the front of the package.

• For example, the package might say “excellent source of fiber,” “rich in fiber,” or “high in fiber.” The Nutrition Facts label will list the amount of dietary fiber in a serving and the % Daily Value (% DV). Look at the % DV column: 5% DV or less is low in dietary fiber, and 20% DV or more is high.

Check the product name and ingredient list.

• For many, but not all “whole-grain” food products, the words “whole” or “whole grain” may appear before the name (e.g., whole-wheat bread). But, because whole-grain foods cannot necessarily be identified by their color or name (brown bread, 9-grain bread, hearty grains bread, mixed grain bread, etc. are not always “whole-grain”), you need to look at the ingredient list. The whole grain should be the first ingredient listed.

The following are some examples of whole grains:

• whole wheat
• brown rice
• quinoa
• buckwheat whole
• oats/oatmeal
• whole rye
• bulgur (cracked wheat)
• sorghum
• whole grain
• barley
• popcorn
• millet
• wild rice
• triticale

What is the healthiest cereal

Try looking at the nutrition label and compare brands so you opt for the healthier version.

For a healthier option, choose breakfast cereals that contain wholegrains and are lower in sugar, fat and salt.

Examples include:

• Wholewheat cereal biscuits
• Shredded wholegrain pillows
• Oats
• Barley

Wholegrains contain fiber and B vitamins, among other nutrients. Fiber helps keep our digestive systems healthy.

Research suggests a diet high in fiber may help reduce the risk of developing heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

• Avoid always going for the same brand, as manufacturers regularly modify their recipes.

Oats, barley, or psyllium-based cereals can help lower cholesterol concentrations (excellent evidence and can be trusted to guide practice), and high-fiber, wheat-based cereals can improve bowel function ⁶.

Mueslis, which usually contain wholegrains and fruit, are often seen as a healthier option, but check the label first – many can be relatively high in fat, added sugar and, in some cases, salt.

Serving cereal with milk or yogurt

Having breakfast cereal is a good opportunity to add calcium to the diet if you serve it with milk or yogurt. Go for semi-skimmed, 1% or skimmed milk, or lower-fat yogurt.

Milk and yogurt are good sources of calcium and protein. Alternatives to cow’s milk include fortified soya, rice and oat drinks.

Adding fruit to cereal

Having cereal is also a good opportunity to get some fruit in the diet. Raisins, dried apricots, bananas and strawberries are popular choices and can be added to any cereal, depending on your tastes.

Adding fruit to cereals is a great way to get kids to eat more fruit. It also helps them enjoy less sugary cereals, as you get sweetness from the fruit.

I don’t have time to sit down for breakfast

It’s a sign of the times that people are increasingly abandoning breakfast cereals, one of the earliest convenience foods, for more convenient “on-the-go” options, such as a breakfast muffin and a latte.

If you’re short on time in the morning, how about setting the table the night before ? You could also grab a pot of porridge on your way to work or have your cereal when you get in.

Cereals are still one of the best value breakfasts out there. A bowl of fortified breakfast cereal with milk gives you more nutrients for your penny when compared with most on-the-go breakfast options.

You could try:

• Muesli, fresh fruit and low-fat yogurt – fruit added to your muesli counts towards your daily requirements. Low-fat yogurt provides calcium and protein, and is low in fat, but watch out for the sugar content. Go for muesli with no added sugar.
• Porridge with mashed banana and dried blueberries – put oats and a handful of dried blueberries in a bowl and add semi-skimmed milk. Heat in the microwave for 3-4 minutes, stirring every so often. When cooked, stir in the mashed banana. The mashed banana is a healthier substitute for sugar or honey. For best results, use a very ripe banana.
• Overnight oats – combine oats and apple juice and let it sit overnight in the fridge. In the morning, add low-fat yogurt, honey to taste, and fresh fruit such as berries.
• Quick porridge – making porridge is easier than you think: combine 50g of rolled or instant oats with 200ml (or more for runny porridge) of semi-skimmed milk in a bowl and microwave on full power for two minutes. Top with dried fruit or nuts.
• Baked beans (low sugar & low salt variety) on wholemeal toast – not only are they naturally low in fat, baked beans are also packed with fibre and protein, making them a vegetarian source of protein. Look out for reduced salt and sugar ranges.
• Banana bagel sandwich – mash a ripe banana and serve it between two halves of a toasted (preferably wholemeal) bagel. Mashing instead of slicing the banana gives the filling a creamier texture, meaning you won’t need low-fat spread.
• One-minute omelette – combine one beaten egg, a few spinach leaves and some chopped lean roast ham in a bowl. Microwave on full power for a minute or until the egg is set.
• Baked eggs – put an egg (with yolk unbroken) and some crème fraîche in a ramekin. Put the ramekin in a baking dish and fill with hot tap water so it comes 3/4 of the way to the top of the ramekin. Bake for 15 minutes or until the egg yolk is set to your liking.

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What is cardamom

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) sometimes cardamon or cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum belonging to the ginger family Zingiberaceae ¹. Both genera are native to India/Pakistan (known as Elaichi), Bhutan, Indonesia and Nepal. They are recognized by their small seed pods: triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin papery outer shell and small black seeds; Elettaria pods are light green and smaller, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown.

There are two main types of cardamom:

• True or green cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum Maton] (or, when bleached, white cardamom) comes from the species Elettaria cardamomum and is distributed from India to Malaysia. What is often referred to as white cardamon is actually Siam cardamom, Amomum krervanh.
• Black cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxburgh), also known as brown, greater, large, longer, or Nepal cardamom, comes from species Amomum subulatum and is native to the eastern Himalayas and mostly cultivated in Eastern Nepal, Sikkim and parts of Darjeeling district in West Bengal of India, and Southern Bhutan.

Both forms of cardamom are used as flavourings and cooking spices in both food and drink, and as a medicine. Elettaria cardamomum (green cardamom) is used as a spice, a masticatory, and in medicine; it is also smoked.

Dry pods of cardamom contain volatile oils, phenolic acids, lipids and sterols ². Both black and green cardamom contain terpenes in the essential oils, with 1,8-cineole and α-terpineol found in black cardamom and α-terpinyl acetate and 1,8-cineole in green cardamom ³. Black cardamom improved alcoholic fatty liver ⁴, lowered lipids in cholesterol diet-fed rabbits ⁵, improved glucose metabolism in fructose-fed rats ⁶ and decreased inflammation in carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rats ⁷.

It is assumed, but not proved, that the volatile oils are the major bioactive principles of cardamom. Further, cardamom contains unknown amounts of phenolic and flavonoid components that may have biological activity.

Cardamom is a good source of volatile oils, fixed oils, phenolic acids and sterols ⁸. Phytochemical studies revealed the presence of multiple chemicals, such as α-terpineol, myrcene, heptane, subinene, limonene, cineol, α-phellandrene, menthone, α-pinene, β-pinene, β-sitostenone, γ-sitosterol, phytol, eugenyl acetate ⁹. In folkloric medicine, cardamom is used as carminative, stomachic, diuretic, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and is considered useful in treatment of constipation, colic, diarrhea, dyspepsia, vomiting, headache, epilepsy and cardiovascular diseases ¹⁰. Volatile oils in cardamom was found to exhibit analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antispasmodic properties ¹¹. Moreover, cardamom fruit is used against cardiac disorders, renal and vesicular calculi, dyspepsia, debility, anorexia, asthma, bronchitis, halitosis and gastrointestinal disorders ¹². Cardamom also possesses antioxidant, antihypertensive, gastro protective, and antispasmodic, antibacterial, antiplatelet aggregation and anticancer properties ¹³. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis showed that ethanol extract of cardamom consists of (−)-epicatechin, vanillin, p-coumaric acid, trans-ferulic acid, ellagic acid which have highly anti inflamatory and antioxidant activities. According to the literature review of cardamom, the major constituents of cardamom are α-terpinyl acetate, α-terpineol, 1,8-cineole and limonene, which have potential effects in metabolic syndrome as these terpenes reduced blood pressure in normotensive rats and also showed endothelium dependent vasorelaxation in male Wistar rats ⁸.

Figure 1. Cardamom pods (green cardamom)

Figure 2. Black cardamom

Cardamom Uses in Food and Beverage

Besides use as flavorant and spice in foods, cardamom-flavored tea, also flavored with cinnamon, is consumed as a hot beverage in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan.

Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic, resinous fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinctly more smokey, though not bitter, aroma, with a coolness some consider similar to mint.

Green cardamom is one of the more expensive spices by weight, but little is needed to impart flavor. It is best stored in the pod as exposed or ground seeds quickly lose their flavor. Grinding the pods and seeds together lowers both the quality and the price. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals  1 1⁄2 teaspoons of ground cardamom.

It is a common ingredient in Indian cooking. It is also often used in baking in the Nordic countries, in particular in Sweden, Norway and Finland, where it is used in traditional treats such as the Scandinavian Jule bread Julekake, the Swedish kardemummabullar sweet bun, and Finnish sweet bread pulla. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes, as well as traditional flavouring in coffee and tea. Cardamom is used to a wide extent in savory dishes. In some Middle Eastern countries, coffee and cardamom are often ground in a wooden mortar, a mihbaj, and cooked together in a skillet, a mehmas, over wood or gas, to produce mixtures as much as 40% cardamom.

In Asia both types of cardamom are widely used in both sweet and savory dishes, particularly in the south. Both are frequent components in spice mixes, such as Indian and Nepali masalas and Thai curry pastes. Green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in masala chai (spiced tea). Both are also often used as a garnish in basmati rice and other dishes. Individual seeds are sometimes chewed and used in much the same way as chewing gum. It is used by confectionery giant Wrigley; its Eclipse Breeze Exotic Mint packaging indicates the product contains “cardamom to neutralize the toughest breath odors”. It is also included in aromatic bitters, gin and herbal teas.

In Korea, medicinal cardamom (Amomum villosum var. xanthioides) and black cardamom (Amomum tsao-ko) is used in traditional tea called jeho-tang.

Cardamom Composition

The content of essential oil in the seeds is strongly dependent on storage conditions, but may be as high as 8%. In the oil were found α-terpineol 45%, myrcene 27%, limonene 8%, menthone 6%, β-phellandrene 3%, 1,8-cineol 2%, sabinene 2% and heptane 2%. Other sources report 1,8-cineol (20 to 50%), α-terpenylacetate (30%), sabinene, limonene (2 to 14%), and borneol.

In the seeds of round cardamom from Java (A. kepulaga), the content of essential oil is lower (2 to 4%), and the oil contains mainly 1,8 cineol (up to 70%) plus β-pinene (16%); furthermore, α-pinene, α-terpineol and humulene were found ¹⁴.

Table 1. Cardamom analysis

Cardamom health benefits

Green cardamom has been used since the 4th century BC by Indian Ayurvedic practitioners and ancient Greek and Roman physicians for the treatment of indigestion, bronchitis, asthma and constipation, and to stimulate appetite in anorexia ¹⁶; other indications include diarrhoea, dyspepsia, epilepsy, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, ulcers, gastro-intestinal disorders and vomiting ¹⁷. Similarly, black cardamom is used by Ayurvedic and Unani practitioners for many ailments including indigestion, vomiting, rectal diseases, dysentery, liver congestion, gastrointestinal disorders and genitourinary complaints ⁷.

The results of various studies have shown that cardamom flavonoids, which are mainly terpenoids, are responsible for the high antioxidant and medicinal benefits of the spice ¹⁸. They also point out to the fact that flavonoids function in different mechanisms ¹⁹.

There is no clear literature evidence that intervention with cardamom, either black or green, decreases the signs of the metabolic syndrome. So far, there have been only two clinical trials that studied the effects of cardamom supplementation in humans ²⁰. One such study showed that cardamom supplementation favorably changed the atherogenic lipid profile—such as low density lipoprotein (LDL-C) “bad” cholesterol, triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol—increased plasma fibrinolytic activity, and improved serum total antioxidant status ²¹. Verma et al’s study ²² reported that consumption of 3 g cardamom powder for 12 weeks by people with hypertension (stage 1) significantly decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Furthermore, the Verma et al ²² study did not show any changes in the blood lipids level in the intervention group. But in another study, even after 2 months of 3 g cardamom powder supplementation, systolic and diastolic blood pressure did not show any significant improvement ²⁰.

Other clinical trial showed that cardamom supplementation significantly reduced blood pressure and improved serum total antioxidant status in subjects with hypertension ²³. However, only a few studies have been carried out on the benefits of cardamom consumption by humans. In a randomized clinical trial ²⁰ evaluating the effects of green cardamom supplementation on serum lipids, glycemic indices, and blood pressure in overweight and obese pre-diabetic women – found a reduction was seen in triglyceride (TG) (−10 vs. -4.6%), total cholesterol (TC) (−4.6 vs. -0.4%), and low density lipoprotein (LDL-C) “bad” cholesterol (−6.4 vs. -0.7%). Although that study shows green cardamom supplementation improves some blood parameters in pre-diabetic subjects, its effects are not different from placebo ²⁰. Another study by Verma ²¹, which was conducted on 30 male patients with ischemic heart disease (coronary heart disease), showed that consuming 3 g of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) powder for 12 weeks significantly reduced atherogenic blood lipids level, including low density lipoprotein (LDL-C) “bad” cholesterol, triglyceride and total cholesterol in the intervention group. Higher content of 1,8-cineole has been accounted for the significant hypolipidemic activity of large cardamom. Indeed, cardamom may have a protective effect on HDL-C level. Further research is needed to clarify the effects of green cardamom in pre-diabetic subjects and in subjects with high cholesterol.

The positive properties of cardamom are mainly due to its volatile oil, which has terpene, esters, flavonoids, and other compounds. The major compounds of the oil are 1, 8 cineole (36.3%) and α-terpinyl acetate (31.3%) ²⁴. 1, 8 -cineole, a monoterpenic oxide, has vascular relaxant, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties ²⁵. In addition, studies show that the health effects of spices are related to their flavonoids component, so similar effects of different spices on blood pressure, glucose indices, and lipid profile can largely be explained by their flavonoids content as well.

It has also been shown that by preventing pancreatic lipase activity, some flavonoids can reduce the absorption of fats ²⁶. They can directly affect the active site of enzyme or by increasing the size of fat micelles (triglycerides), indirectly reducing access of enzyme to substrate ²⁶. The result of some studies on patients with metabolic syndrome has shown foods with high flavoniods content reduce serum triglyceride, total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein (LDL-C) “bad” cholesterol and increase high density lipoprotein (HDL-C) “good” cholesterol. Moreover, flavoniods have an effect on transcription factors such as proteins, Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Protein (SREBP-1), and SREBP-2 sterol regulatory element-binding, which increase cholesterol and triglyceride synthesis ²⁷.

The role of flavonoids in the prevention of insulin resistance has also been researched. One of the main factors, which results in insulin resistance in adipose tissue is the increase of fat storage in adipocytes, which leads to inflammation. Flavonoids, by reducing fat storage, might improve insulin function in the body ²⁷.

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What is black pepper

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is a flowering vine, an important member of the family Piperaceae, which is cultivated chiefly for its fruit as a major cash crop more than 30 tropical countries of the world, such as Vietnam, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and Brazil ¹. Black pepper is considered as the “king of spice” due to its global trade and widespread use in cooking and the preservation of food and even has medicinal properties ². Due its medicinal properties, black pepper is used in traditional medicine for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties ³. The black pepper fruit which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning, known as a peppercorn. When fresh and fully mature, it is approximately 5 millimetres (0.20 in) in diameter and dark red, and contains a single seed like all drupes. Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit), and white pepper (ripe fruit seeds).

Black pepper is native to south India and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Currently, Vietnam is the world’s largest producer and exporter of pepper, producing 34% of the world’s black pepper crop as of 2013.

Dried ground pepper has been used since antiquity both for its flavor and as a traditional medicine. Black pepper is the world’s most traded spice and is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. Its spiciness is due to the chemical piperine, not to be confused with the capsaicin characteristic of chili peppers. It is ubiquitous in the modern world as a seasoning and is often paired with salt.

Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from piperine derived both from the outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6% and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the capsaicin found in chili peppers ⁴. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains aroma-contributing terpenes, including germacrene (11%), limonene (10%), pinene (10%), alpha-phellandrene (9%), and beta-caryophyllene (7%) ⁵, which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, which is stripped of the fruit layer. White pepper can gain different odors (including musty notes) from its longer fermentation stage. The aroma of pepper is attributed to rotundone (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl)azulene-1(2H)-one), a sesquiterpene originally discovered in the tubers of cyperus rotundus, which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/L in water and in wine.

Piperine has already shown in test tube study to have leishmanicidal [killing leishmania parasites] activity ⁶. Furthermore, secondary metabolites of black pepper possess active compounds with insecticidal activity, antibacterial, antifungal, and others ⁷.

Figure 1. Black pepper

White pepper vs black pepper

Both white and black peppercorns are berries come from the same plant – the piper nigrum plant. The difference between the two is a matter of processing. Black peppercorns are the ones with which most people are familiar and are picked when the berries are close to being ripe. The berries are sun-dried after picking which darkens their outer layer. With white peppercorns, the outer layer of the berry is removed either before or after it is dried so that only the lighter colored inner seed remains. The outer layer can be removed in a couple of ways. For instance, the berry may be soaked in water and this allows the darker-colored skins to fall off. Another way of removing the skin involves washing the skin off with a continuous flow of water. The latter method creates a cleaner final product. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit and the naked seed is dried. Sometimes alternative processes are used for removing the outer pepper from the seed, including removing the outer layer through mechanical, chemical, or biological methods. Because its production process involves more steps, white pepper is usually more expensive than black pepper.

When it comes to heat, white pepper wins out as its spiciness is more pronounced when compared to black pepper. However, many food experts believe that the flavor of white pepper is markedly less complex when compared high-quality black pepper. The outer layer found on black pepper contains compounds that add to the complexity of its flavor. The fact that it has the outer layer gives black pepper a greater range of flavor notes including floral and fruit notes.

Ground white pepper is used in Chinese and Thai cuisine, but also in salads, cream sauces, light-colored sauces, and mashed potatoes (where black pepper would visibly stand out). White pepper has a different flavor from black pepper; it lacks certain compounds present in the outer layer of the drupe. However, in many dishes, you can use whichever of the two peppers you want or have available. While it is possible to substitute either peppercorn for the other, it is also important to note that white pepper is often used to preserve a uniform appearance in cream sauces and other lighter colored dishes. In such dishes, it may not be possible to use black pepper as a substitute unless you have no problem with seeing black specks. It is also important to note that because white pepper is spicier than black pepper, it may be necessary to use more black pepper when using it in place of white.

Figure 2. White pepper

Black pepper essential oil

In black pepper essential oil, 42 compounds were identified, comprising 89% of the oil. The essential oil was characterized by the presence of sesquiterpenes (58.9%) and monoterpenes (26.3%). The sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene was identified as the major compound, representing 26.2% of the oil, followed by the monoterpenes hydrocarbons σ-ocymene (5.8%) and α-pinene (5.5%).

The constituents of black pepper essential oils can vary with environmental conditions, such as climate, soil type and brightness. The biological properties of β-caryophyllene have been confirmed in previous studies involving Leptinotarsa decemlineata [the Colorado potato beetle] (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), S. littoralis ⁸, larvae of Aedes aegypti [larvae of mosquito that can spread dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro and yellow fever viruses] ⁹ and Tetranychus urticae [spider mites] ¹⁰. The compound α-pinene has been reported with insecticidal activity in larvae of Culex pipiens [common house mosquito larvae] ¹¹ and as a fumigant against the adult mushroom fly Lycoriella mali (Diptera: Sciaridae) ¹². In summary, an appropriately formulated black pepper or derivative product may have potential as a larvicide for mosquitos control.

Table 1. Composition of black pepper oil

Black pepper nutrition facts

One tablespoon (6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts of vitamin K (13% of the daily value or DV), iron (10% DV) and manganese (18% DV), with trace amounts of other essential nutrients, protein and dietary fiber.

Table 2. Black pepper nutrition facts

Black pepper health benefits

Piperine, a major alkaloid of black pepper has been shown to possess analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antioxidant, antidepressant and cognitive-enhancing effects ¹⁵. It has been shown that piperine protects against neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment in animal model of cognitive deficit like condition of Alzheimer’s disease ¹⁶. Furthermore, in a recent study researchers were able to show that the methanolic extract of black pepper fruits ameliorated Aβ (1–42)-induced spatial memory impairment by attenuation the oxidative stress in the rat hippocampus ¹⁷. Moreover, this may be one of the reasons that this extract could also exert anxiolytic and antidepressant activities ¹⁸. It has been reported that piperine inhibited monoamine oxidase activity, increased monoamine neurotransmitters levels, and thus produced antidepressant-like activity in various mouse models of behavioral despair ¹⁹. The antidepressive effect of piperine has been also observed in mice exposed to chronic mild stress and it was linked to up-regulation of hippocampal progenitor cell proliferation ²⁰. This antidepressant-like effect of piperine in chronically stressed mice was also shown to be mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling ²¹.

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16. Piperine, the main alkaloid of Thai black pepper, protects against neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment in animal model of cognitive deficit like condition of Alzheimer’s disease. Chonpathompikunlert P, Wattanathorn J, Muchimapura S. Food Chem Toxicol. 2010 Mar; 48(3):798-802. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20034530/
17. Methanolic extract of Piper nigrum fruits improves memory impairment by decreasing brain oxidative stress in amyloid beta(1-42) rat model of Alzheimer’s disease. Hritcu L, Noumedem JA, Cioanca O, Hancianu M, Kuete V, Mihasan M. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2014 Apr; 34(3):437-49. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24442916/
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What is black currant

Black currant (Ribes nigrum L.) is a small, perennial shrub native to central Europe and northern Asia, is cultivated throughout the world, including the United States where it prefers damp fertile soils ¹. Black currant is winter hardy, but cold weather at flowering time during the spring reduces the size of the crop. Bunches of small, glossy black fruit develop along the stems in the summer and can be harvested by hand or by machine. The raw fruit is particularly rich in vitamin C and polyphenol phytochemicals. Blackcurrants can be eaten raw but are usually cooked in a variety of sweet or savory dishes. They are used to make jams, jellies and syrups and are grown commercially for the juice market. The fruit is also used in the preparation of alcoholic beverages and both fruit and foliage have uses in traditional medicine and the preparation of dyes.

The fruit of black currants can be eaten raw, but it has a strong, tart flavor. It can be made into jams and jellies which set readily because of the fruit’s high content of pectin and acid. For culinary use, black currant is usually cooked with sugar to produce a purée, which can then be passed through muslin to separate the juice. The purée can be used to make black currant preserves and be included in cheesecakes, yogurt, ice cream, desserts, sorbets and many other sweet dishes. The exceptionally strong flavor can be moderated by combining it with other fruits, such as raspberries and strawberries in summer pudding or apples in crumbles and pies. Black currant juice can be used in syrups and cordials. Black currants are a common ingredient of Rødgrød, a popular kissel-like dessert in North German and Danish cuisines.

Black currants are also used in savory cooking because their astringency creates added flavor in many sauces, meat and other dishes and they are included in some unusual combinations of foods. They can be added to tomato and mint to make a salad, used to accompany roast or grilled lamb, used to accompany seafood and shellfish, used as a dipping sauce at barbecues, blended with mayonnaise, used to invigorate bananas and other tropical fruits, combined with dark chocolate or added to mincemeat in traditional mince pies at Christmas.

Black currant juice

Black currant juice forms the basis for various popular cordials, juice drinks, juices and smoothies. Typically blended with apple or other red fruits, it is also mixed with pomegranate and grape juice. Macerated blackcurrants are also the primary ingredient in the apéritif liqueur crème de cassis, which in turn is added to white wine to produce a Kir or to champagne to make a Kir Royale.

In the United Kingdom, blackcurrant cordial is often mixed with cider (hard cider) to make a drink called “cider and black”. If made with any common British lager beer, it is known as a “lager and black”. The addition of blackcurrant to a mix of cider and lager results in “diesel” or “snakebite and black” available at pubs. A “black ‘n’ black” can be made by adding a small amount of blackcurrant juice to a pint of stout. The head is purple if the shot of juice is placed in the glass first. Blackcurrant juice is sometimes combined with whey in an endurance/energy-type drink.

In Russia, blackcurrant leaves may be used for flavouring tea or preserves, such as salted cucumbers, and berries for home winemaking. Sweetened vodka may also be infused with blackcurrant leaves making a deep greenish-yellow beverage with a tart flavour and astringent taste. The berries may be infused in a similar manner. In Britain, 95% of the blackcurrants grown end up in Ribena (a brand of fruit juice whose name is derived from Ribes nigrum) and similar fruit syrups and juices.

Figure 1. Black currant 

Black currant nutrition facts

Raw black currants are 82% water, 15% carbohydrates, 1% protein and 0.4% fat (see Table 1). Per 100 g serving providing 63 calories, the raw fruit has high vitamin C content (218% of the Daily Value, DV) and moderate levels of iron and manganese (12% DV each). Other nutrients are present in negligible amounts (less than 10% DV).

Major anthocyanins in blackcurrant pomace are delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, which are retained in the juice concentrate among other yet unidentified polyphenols.

Black currant seed oil is rich in vitamin E and unsaturated fatty acids, including alpha-linolenic acid and gamma-linolenic acid.

Table 1. Black currant (raw) nutrition facts

Black currant oil

Blackcurrant seed oil is a rich source of gamma-linolenic acid (omega 6 polyunsaturated fatty acid) ~ 17 percent ³ and is typically consumed as a part of a dietary supplement. This gamma-linolenic acid (omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid) is used for prevention and/or treatment of various degenerative pathologies such as osteoporosis ⁴, diabetes ⁵ and cancer ⁶, ⁷. Additionally, gamma-linolenic acid has been shown to suppress in vitro (test tube) tumor growth ⁸, improve oxygenation status ⁹, exert anti-inflammatory activity and display beneficial effects in the early stages of sepsis ¹⁰.

Black currant oil benefits

Numerous studies primarily carried out in the 1980s and 1990s demonstrated that gamma-linolenic acid-enriched botanical oils (evening primrose, borage, blackcurrant seed, and fungal-derived) had the capacity to relieve the signs and symptoms of several chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and atopic dermatitis ¹¹. However, several more recent reviews and meta-analyses have questioned these earlier studies and raised doubts about the clinical effectiveness of gamma-linolenic acid-enriched supplements particularly in the context of atopic dermatitis and rheumatoid arthritis ¹² (see Table 2). A variety of issues complicate these studies including the fact that many of the trials have: 1) relatively low subject numbers; 2) less than ideal study designs (e.g. the absence of washout period in cross-over design trials); 3) variations in the types of gamma-linolenic acid supplements and how they are administered (e.g. dose, duration); and 4) differences in selection/inclusion criteria (e.g. population demographics and disease states) ¹³.

Table 2. Effect of gamma-linolenic acid-enriched oil supplements on various human disease from meta-analyses and recent studies