Is tuna healthy and good for you ?

A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family (Scombridae) ¹. Tuna fish comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, ranging from the bullet tuna [max. length: 50 cm (1.6 ft), weight: 1.8 kg (4 lb)] up to the Atlantic bluefin tuna [max. length: 4.6 m (15 ft), weight: 684 kg (1,508 lb)]. The bluefin averages 2 m (6.6 ft), and is believed to live for up to 50 years.

A new study ² of dietary habits of more than 70,000 people by California researchers found that those who followed a vegetarian diet had a 22% lower risk of colon cancer than non-vegetarians. When fish was added to a vegetarian diet, the risk reduction was even greater, 43%. Adding fish appears to be a good choice because it contains omega-3 fatty acids, which may be anti-inflammatory, and supplies vitamin D, also linked to lower colorectal cancer risk.

Fish and shellfish provide protein, are low in saturated fat, are rich in many micronutrients, and provide certain omega-3 fatty acids that the body can not make and are important for normal growth and development.

Most fish are an excellent source of high quality protein. Fish are also important sources of selenium, zinc, iodine, iron, and other minerals needed by the body. Fish are natural sources of many B vitamins, and oily fish provide vitamins A and D. Studies with pregnant women have found that the nutritional benefits of fish, like other protein-rich foods, are important for their children’s growth and development during pregnancy and childhood. Most fish are low in fat, and most of the fat that is present in fish is healthy polyunsaturated fat. The polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are also present in many types of fish. Research is still underway to determine the health benefits of omega-3 fatty acids.

Omega-3 supplements do not provide protein, vitamins, or minerals. Taking omega-3 supplements instead of eating fish means that you would be missing out on the high quality protein, minerals, and vitamins present in fish that are beneficial to overall health.

The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans ³ recommend increasing the amount of fish, and to choose a variety of fish lower in mercury. According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the recommendation is to eat 8 ounces (227 grams) of high omega-3 fish per week would provide from 186 to 652 mg of EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) per day combined in food patterns with 1,000 to 3,200 calories, respectively. Eating 8 ounces of low omega-3 fish per week would only provide from 76 to 265 mg of EPA plus DHA per day over the same calorie range. The recommendation for 8 ounces of high omega-3 fish fish per week does differ greatly from what Americans are currently consuming.

Fish should be eaten in place of other protein sources, such as some meat and poultry. This may also mean paying attention to how the fish are prepared. Broiled fish, for example, typically contain fewer calories than fried fish and can be healthier in other ways as well. Sodium and cholesterol content from the fish or from the cooking process should also be considered as with other aspects of healthy eating. If you are uncertain about what the right number of calories is for you, please visit ChooseMyPlate ⁴ for information regarding appropriate caloric intake [specific information is available at Body Weight Planner ⁵]. If you want more information, we recommend that you consult a nutritionist or your physician.

The US Health Authorities have concluded that the following people should eat more fish that is lower in mercury for important developmental and health benefits ⁶:

• Women of childbearing age (about 16-49 years old)
• Pregnant and breastfeeding women
• Young children

The advice recommends that women and children eat two to three servings (8-12 ounces for adults and children over age 10, smaller amounts for younger children) of a variety of fish and shellfish each week.

Types of tuna fish

Figure 1. Yellowfin tuna

Figure 2. Bluefin tuna

Figure 3. Albacore tuna

What is the difference between albacore (white) tuna and canned light tuna ?

Albacore or white tuna, is larger and lives longer than the fish generally used in canned light tuna. Meanwhile, canned light tuna can be a mix of a variety of generally smaller tuna species, most often skipjack.

I eat a lot of tuna, especially canned light tuna because it is particularly affordable. Is this okay ?

Yes. Canned light tuna is in the “Best Choices” category (see below in Figure 4. US FDA & EPA Advice on Eating Fish) and it is fine to eat 2 to 3 servings per week. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that you eat a variety of fish. You may wish to try other affordable fish in the “Best Choices” category such as canned salmon or sardines, frozen fish, or fresh fish that are at a reduced price.

I eat a lot of tuna, but prefer to eat albacore tuna. Is this okay ?

Albacore tuna, also known as white tuna, typically contains three times more mercury than canned light tuna. You can eat albacore or any of the other fish from the “Good Choices” category once a week.

Tuna nutrition facts

Tuna can be a good source of omega-3 fatty acids. It can contain 300 milligrams (0.011 oz) per serving. However, the level of omega-3 oils found in canned tuna is highly variable, since some common manufacturing methods destroy much of the omega-3 oils in the fish. Tuna is also a good source of protein.

Table 1. Tuna bluefin (raw) nutrition facts

Table 2. Tuna yellowfin (raw) nutrition facts

Table 3. Tuna skipjack (raw) nutrition facts

Table 4. Tuna white, canned in water, drained solids nutrition facts

Table 5. Tuna white, canned in oil, drained solids nutrition facts

Tuna Health Benefits

Fish is a very important part of a healthy diet. Fish and other seafood are the major sources of healthful long-chain omega-3 fats [DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) & eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)] and are also rich in other nutrients such as vitamin D and selenium, high in protein, and low in saturated fat. There is strong evidence that eating fish and/or taking fish oil is good for the heart and blood vessels. An analysis of 20 studies involving hundreds of thousands of participants indicates that eating approximately one to two 3-ounce servings of fatty fish a week—salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, or sardines—reduces the risk of dying from heart disease by 36 percent ⁸.

Eating fish fights heart disease in several ways. The omega-3 fats in fish protect the heart against the development of erratic and potentially deadly cardiac rhythm disturbances. They also lower blood pressure and heart rate, improve blood vessel function, and, at higher doses, lower triglycerides and may ease inflammation. The strong and consistent evidence for benefits is such that the Dietary Guidelines for Americans ⁹, the American Heart Association ¹⁰ and others suggest that everyone eat fish twice a week ¹¹, ¹².

Unfortunately, fewer than one in five Americans heeds that advice. About one-third of Americans eat seafood once a week, while nearly half eat fish only occasionally or not at all ¹³. Although some people may simply not like fish, the generally low consumption is likely also caused by other factors, including perceptions about cost, access to stores that sell fish, and uncertainty about how to prepare or cook fish. Still others may avoid seafood because they worry that they—or their children—will be harmed by mercury, pesticide residues, or other possible toxins that are in some types of fish.

Here’s what’s known about the benefits and risks of eating fish and other seafood:

• Known or likely benefits: In a comprehensive analysis of human studies, Harvard School of Public Health professors Dariush Mozaffarian and Eric Rimm calculated that eating about 2 grams per week of omega-3 fatty acids in fish, equal to about one or two servings of fatty fish a week, reduces the chances of dying from heart disease by more than one-third ⁸. Both observational studies and controlled trials have also demonstrated that the omega-3 fats in fish are important for optimal development of a baby’s brain and nervous system, and that the children of women who consume lower amounts of fish or omega-3’s during pregnancy and breast-feeding have evidence of delayed brain development.

• Possible benefits: Eating fish once or twice a week may also reduce the risk of stroke, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and other chronic conditions ¹⁴.

Tuna Safety and Risk Factors

Eating Fish: What Pregnant Women and Parents Should Know

In 2014, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in coordination with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), issued an advisory ¹⁵ about the risks of methylmercury in fish and shellfish, in order to improve its understanding of health effects on U.S. consumers from eating commercial fish, specifically the effects on the developing nervous system of the fetus from the consumption of commercial fish during pregnancy. Methylmercury is a neurotoxin when exposure to it is high enough, can cause developmental delays when young or unborn children are exposed. This sensitivity was demonstrated in industrial poisoning events in Japan and Iraq in the last century that caused exposures to methylmercury hundreds of times higher than they are from typical fish consumption. The advisory therefore targeted parents of young children, pregnant women, women who may become pregnant, and nursing mothers. Methylmercury is in most if not all fish, at least in trace amounts.

To complicate that question, substantial evidence has emerged within the past decade that fish consumption during pregnancy can benefit the developing nervous system even though fish contain methylmercury. Whether this benefit is due solely to omega-3 fatty acids in fish or to some combination of nutrients that could include omega-3 fatty acids is not yet well understood. Nonetheless, evidence for beneficial effects on neurodevelopment in addition to adverse effects on the same endpoint raises important public health questions. Under what circumstances is eating fish during pregnancy likely to be harmful or beneficial to the developing fetus ? How harmful or beneficial are these effects likely to be ? Which of these effects or both, are actually occurring in the United States and under what circumstances ? What would be the consequences for fetal neurodevelopment if fish consumption were different ?

Figure 4. US FDA & EPA Advice on Eating Fish

Beneficial net effects of eating fish were consistently associated with consumption during pregnancy that exceeded to some extent 12 ounces or two servings of fish per week, the ceiling recommended in 2004 for pregnant women by FDA and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the high end of the 8-12 ounces of fish per week now recommended for pregnant women by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 edition.

The FDA assessment estimates that for each of the endpoints modeled, consumption of commercial fish during pregnancy is net beneficial for most children in the United States. On a population basis, average neurodevelopment in this country is estimated to benefit by nearly 0.7 of an IQ point from maternal consumption of commercial fish. For comparison purposes, the average population-level benefit for early age verbal development is equivalent in size to 1.02 of an IQ point. For a sensitive endpoint as estimated by tests of later age verbal development, the average population-level benefit from fish consumption is estimated to be 1.41 verbal IQ points.

The FDA assessment also estimates that a mean maximum improvement of about 3 IQ points is possible from fish consumption, depending on the types and amounts of fish consumed. Fish lower in methylmercury generally produce larger benefits than fish higher in methylmercury and the likelihood of an adverse net effect is lower. Amounts needed to obtain the largest benefits, e.g. , the most IQ points, can vary depending on fish species, but in the hypothetical scenarios modeled in this assessment, the largest benefits on a population-wide basis occur red when all pregnant women ate 12 ounces of a variety of fish per week. By contrast, an FDA survey of young women indicates that pregnant women eat slightly less than two ounces of fish per week.

Almost all fish species and market fish/shellfish types are estimated to become net beneficial at relatively low levels of consumption, although the size of any net benefit is somewhat smaller than it otherwise would be due to methylmercury. This beneficial net effect increases along with consumption until a maximum possible benefit is reached. This benefit is estimated to be around 3 IQ points when IQ is the endpoint and equivalent in size to two IQ points when early age verbal development is the endpoint. Consumption beyond an amount necessary to obtain the maximum possible benefit causes the net benefit to become smaller because exposure to methylmercury continues to increase. If consumption becomes great enough, the net benefit can disappear and be replaced by net adverse effects.

This phenomenon, in which fish convey a net benefit that increases with consumption until a beneficial plateau is reached, followed by a decrease in net benefit that can be replaced by a net adverse effect if consumption becomes high enough, is estimated to occur for most species of commercial fish. For species that are lower in methylmercury, the size of the maximum possible net benefit is estimated to be higher than it is for species that are higher in methylmercury and the amounts per week that must be consumed to become net adverse is greater. For species that are very low in methylmercury, the amount needed to become net adverse can be high to the point of being essentially unreachable. But for the minority of species that are relatively high in methylmercury, that amount is reachable by high-end consumers of those species. Moreover, some fish highest in methylmercury could possibly become net adverse almost immediately.

A combination of very low fish consumption by many women and substantial consumption of high methylmercury fish by some women would appear to be the most plausible explanation for adverse net effects much beyond one percent of children – and even possibly for adverse net effects through one percent.

Questions & Answers on What Pregnant Women and Parents Should Know about Eating Fish

What are mercury and methylmercury ?

Mercury is an element that occurs naturally in the environment and is also released to the environment through many types of human activity. It can collect in streams, lakes, and oceans and is turned into methylmercury in the water or sediment. It is this type of mercury that is present in fish. Methylmercury can be harmful to the brain and nervous system if a person is exposed to too much of it over time.

Is there methylmercury in all fish ?

Nearly all fish contain at least traces of methylmercury. Fish absorb methylmercury from the food they eat. It tends to build up more in some types of fish than others, especially in larger fish that eat other fish and those fish that live longer.

Should I not eat fish during pregnancy in order to avoid mercury ?

No, fish can contribute to a healthy diet before and during pregnancy and while breastfeeding. Studies with pregnant women have found that the nutritional benefits of fish, like other protein-rich foods, are important for their child’s growth and development during pregnancy and childhood. This is especially true when the fish is lower in mercury. Most people eat less than the recommended amount of fish, both in general and during pregnancy. A 2005 FDA survey found pregnant women typically ate only 2 ounces of fish a week. The chart in this advice shows which fish are the best choices for women who are pregnant, might become pregnant, or are breastfeeding, or for young children.

Can cleaning or preparing (e.g., cooking) my fish reduce the amount of mercury that might be present ?

No. Mercury is found throughout the tissue in fish, so cleaning or cooking will not reduce the amount of mercury. The way to reduce the amount of mercury is to eat the fish shown on the chart identified as the “Best Choices.”

Should I be concerned if I eat one serving of the fish listed in the “Choices to Avoid” category ?

No, but going forward, choose from fish from the “Best Choices” or “Good Choices” categories. Just try to avoid eating the “Choices to Avoid” fish or feeding them to children. We recommend you eat a variety of fish from the “Best Choices” and “Good Choices” categories on the chart.

Are there other contaminants in fish ?

Yes, however, FDA has found that the levels of other contaminants in commercial fish generally do not raise human health concerns. For many years, FDA has sampled and tested commercial seafood for pesticides and industrial chemicals as well as other heavy metals besides mercury and the results are available on FDA’s website:

• Pesticide Program Residue Monitoring ¹⁷
• Total Diet Study Analytical Results ¹⁸

Levels of other contaminants vary by location and fish species. State and local health departments or fish and game agencies provide advice on other contaminants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in fish from particular bodies of water. People who catch their own fish for recreation or as a source of protein in their diets should check for fish advisories for both fresh and marine waters.

It is a good idea to remove skin, fat, and internal organs where other types of harmful pollutants may accumulate for fish you and your friends catch before you cook these fish. This is particularly true because fish from some local waters may be more likely to contain other contaminants.

And remember – eat a variety of fish, not just the same type every time you eat fish. There are plenty of fish shown on the chart to choose from, so there are fish for every taste.

How do I use the chart ?

Fish are a high quality protein source, and lower mercury fish are a good choice for everyone. This advice is specifically for women who are pregnant, might become pregnant or are breastfeeding, and for young children, but everyone can follow this advice.

Use the chart to help you choose which fish to eat each week. Eating a variety of fish is better for you and your child than eating the same type every time.

You can eat 2 to 3 servings a week of fish in the “Best Choices” category, based on a serving size of four ounces, in the context of a total healthy diet.

You can eat 1 serving a week of fish in the “Good Choices” category.

You should not eat fish in the “Choices to Avoid” category or feed them to young children. However, if you do, eat fish with lower mercury levels in the following weeks.

How did you decide which fish went in each category ?

The FDA/EPA took a cautious and highly protective approach in determining which fish belonged in each category. They calculated how many servings the average pregnant woman could eat in a week using information on mercury content of each fish type from FDA’s database for commercial fish and other sources. If she could eat that fish at least three times a week, then they listed it in the “Best Choices” category. If she could eat that fish only once a week, or twice but not three times a week, then they listed it in the “Good Choices” category. If she could not eat a serving of that fish once a week, then they listed the fish in the “Choices to Avoid” category.

How can some fish be in more than one category ?

There are different types (or species) of tuna, such as albacore, bigeye, and yellowfin. Some types of tuna that are bigger or live longer tend to have higher mercury levels, and that is why they are in different categories. So, canned light tuna is in the “Best Choices” category. Albacore (or white) tuna and yellowfin tuna are in the “Good Choices” category, and bigeye tuna is in the “Choices to Avoid.” In addition, fish of the same species that are caught in different geographic locations can vary in mercury content. For example, tilefish are in two categories because tilefish in the Gulf of Mexico have higher mercury levels than those in the Atlantic Ocean.

Why are some fish not on the chart ?

If you are looking for a species of fish that is not on the chart, such as mussels, that means the FDA/EPA did not have enough reliable mercury data to include it. The FDA/EPA plan to update the chart as they get more data.

How can I find out more details on the mercury levels in fish ?

Go to the FDA page that shows the average mercury levels in commercial fish here ¹⁹.

Table 6. FDA Average Mercury Level in Commercial Fish

NC = not calculated

What is a serving ?

For adults, a typical serving is 4 ounces of fish, measured before cooking. The FDA advice is to eat 2 to 3 servings of a variety of cooked fish or about 8 to 12 ounces, in a week.

How can I tell how much 4 ounces is ?

Four ounces is about the size and thickness of an adult’s palm.

What happens if I eat less fish than the 2 to 3 servings a week you recommend ?

You could miss out on the high quality protein, minerals and vitamins present in fish that are beneficial to overall health. Simply try to eat the recommended amount from a variety of fish in the following weeks. Our advice is provided as a general guideline for how much fish to eat weekly.

What happens if I eat more than 3 servings of fish in a week ?

Try to vary the fish you eat. If you eat more than 3 servings in a week and some include fish with higher mercury levels, try to eat fish with lower mercury levels in the following weeks.

Should I make any changes to the advice based on my weight ?

The advice provided here is intended as a general guideline. Women who weigh less than the average (165 pounds) may wish to eat smaller portions or to eat two servings of fish a week instead of three.

Is it true that pregnant women and young children should avoid raw fish ?

Yes. The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and FDA recommend that pregnant women and young children should only eat foods with fish, meat, poultry, or eggs that have been cooked to safe internal temperatures to protect against microbes that might be in those foods. This includes raw fish served as part of sushi or sashimi (Japanese-style foods) that are available in many restaurants and food stores. Pregnant women and young children often have weaker immune systems and are more at risk for foodborne illnesses.

What if I cannot or do not eat fish? Will my baby be okay ?

Fish is one source of high quality protein, minerals and vitamins that are beneficial to overall health. You can have a healthy baby even if you don’t eat fish.

I’m a woman who could have children but I’m not pregnant. Why should I follow this advice ?

If you could become pregnant in the next year, we encourage you to begin following this advice now. Eating 2 to 3 servings of a variety of fish a week along with other protein-rich foods can help your child’s growth and development, and following the recommendations for how often to eat the various fish types is also important. That’s because mercury in fish can accumulate in your body over time. While mercury is removed from the body naturally, the process can take several months. So, following this advice before pregnancy can benefit the developing child, especially during the important first trimester.

What advice do you have about eating fish for people who are not pregnant, will not become pregnant, or are not breastfeeding ?

Fish are a high quality protein source, and lower mercury fish are a good choice for everyone. This advice is specifically for women who are pregnant, might become pregnant or are breastfeeding, and for young children, but everyone can follow this advice.

Should children eat fish and if so, how much ?

Yes, fish, like other protein-rich foods, is good for a child’s growth and development. We recommend serving fish to children 1-2 times per week from a variety of fish, but the portion sizes should be smaller than adult portions and right for your child’s age and total calorie needs. On average, a serving size is about 1 ounce for children ages 2-3 years, 2 ounces for children ages 4-7 years, 3 ounces for children ages 8-10 years and 4 ounces for children 11 years and older. For more information, please see our technical page.

At what age can I start giving my child fish ?

Parents can feed fish to young children, but should not feed fish to children younger than 6 months of age. Because fish, and particularly shellfish, are regarded as major potential allergens, parents feeding fish to their children for the first time should monitor for signs of an allergic reaction before feeding a second time.

What if I eat fish caught by family and friends ?

When eating fish you or others have caught, pay attention to fish advisories on those water bodies. There are waters where there may have been little or no monitoring and, therefore, the extent of potential mercury contamination is unknown. If advice isn’t available, you should limit your consumption of that fish to one serving per week and not eat any other fish that week. Adults should eat no more than 6 ounces that week, children under the age of six should limit their consumption of these fish to 1 to 2 ounces per week, and older children (ages six to twelve) should limit their consumption to 2 to 3 ounces per week. Again, neither adults nor children should eat other fish that week.

Where do I get information about the safety of fish caught by family or friends ?

Check the applicable fishing regulations booklet or website for information about recreationally caught fish. Local, state, and tribal health departments and fish and game agencies also have information about advisories for consuming fish in their jurisdiction. Also see EPA’s website for fish consumption advisories ²¹, ²².

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2. Vegetarian Dietary Patterns and the Risk of Colorectal Cancers. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(5):767-776. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.59 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2174939
3. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/
4. ChooseMyPlate. https://www.choosemyplate.gov/
5. Body Weight Planner. https://www.supertracker.usda.gov/bwp/index.html
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What is lettuce

Lettuce butter head (Lactuca sativa L.) is an annual plant of the daisy family, Asteraceae. Lettuce is most often grown as a leaf vegetable, but sometimes for its stem and seeds. Lettuce is most often used for salads, although it is also seen in other kinds of food, such as soups, sandwiches and wraps; it can also be grilled. Although lettuce is not usually acknowledged as being a rich source of beneficial phytochemicals, it does contain phenolic compounds, vitamins C and E, and carotenoids ¹. Lettuce consumption can improve cholesterol metabolism in rats and can stimulate the antioxidant capacity of blood plasma in both humans and rats ². Beneficial phenolic compounds in lettuce include chicoric acid (also called dicaffeoyltartaric acid), chlorogenic acid (also known as caffeoyl quinic acid) and the flavonoid quercetin ³. Chicoric acid extracted from lettuce inhibits both lipid peroxidation and cyclo-oxygenase enzyme activities ³; chlorogenic acid is effective at inhibiting the hypermethylation of DNA, which is characteristic of tumour cells ⁴. Finally, quercetin has potential anti-cancer properties, arresting A549 lung cancer cell lines in vitro ⁵. Despite the effects of these phenolics in isolation, it has been suggested that eating whole foods rich in natural sources of these beneficial compounds is more effective than relying solely on dietary supplements ⁶, ⁷.

Types of lettuce

Lettuce varieties are classified into five groups depending on head formation and leaf qualities. There are several types of lettuce, but three (leaf, head and cos or romaine) are the most common. There are seven main cultivar groups of lettuce, each including many varieties:

1. Iceberg/Crisphead lettuce – Crisp and hardy (though not as flavorful as other lettuces), iceberg or crisphead lettuce is the most popular type in the US, it is very heat-sensitive and was originally adapted for growth in the northern US. Characterized by a tight firm head of crisp, light green leaves with a white, densely packed heart. This lettuce type is generally intolerant of hot summer conditions, and water or nutritional stress at any time of growth tends to result in premature bolting and poor growth. In summer, some varieties tend to develop slimy internal rotting. Grown for their crisp, sweet, juicy crunch most varieties take about 80 days to develop densely packed heads. It ships well, but is low in flavor and nutritional content, being composed of even more water than other lettuce types. Iceberg lettuce that’s unwashed and stored in a plastic bag in the fridge will keep for up to two weeks — twice as long as most other kinds. Look for firm, densely packed heads that are heavy for their size.
2. Leaf lettuce – Also known as looseleaf, cutting or bunching lettuce, this type has loosely bunched leaves. These are the easiest kind of lettuces to grow, and they form no heart or head, as the name indicates. They can be harvested leaf by leaf or by the whole plant. Leaves come in a wide variety of shapes and colors including thick, thin, savoyed, flat, red, green, frilled, cut, curled, wavy, crinkly and so on. There are some extremely frilly and decorative European varieties. The leaves are tender, delicate, and mild flavored, and plants are slow bolting throughout the summer. Varieties tend to mature in 30 – 55 days. It is used mainly for salads.
3. Romaine/Cos lettuce – The names for this type of lettuce are derived from its Mediterranean origin and are interchangeable. “Romaine” is a derivation of Roman, while “Cos” comes from Kos, the Greek island. Romaine-type lettuces are 8 – 10 inches tall, upright in form, with long tightly folded leaves that are spoon shaped with thick midribs. Outer leaves are medium-green in color while inner leaves are greenish-white. Outer leaves can be a bit tough, but the ribs are tender and crunchy. Varieties tend to mature in about 75 days. Used mainly for salads and sandwiches, this type forms long, upright heads. This is the most often used lettuce in Caesar salads.
4. Butterhead/Boston or Bibb lettuce – Butterhead, Boston or Bibb lettuce is the most popular type of lettuce grown in Europe and one of the finest types. The name comes from the buttery feel and creamy color of the inside leaves. The outer leaves are large and ruffled, often loosely folded, and darker green or brownish in color. Butterhead varieties can be harvested by removing outer leaves or by harvesting the entire head. Butterhead varieties are easier to grow than Crispheads as they are more tolerant of soil and weather conditions. Varieties are also rarely bitter in flavor, are slow bolting, and mature in 55 to 65 days.
5. Summer crisp lettuce – Also called Batavian or French crisp, this lettuce is An intermediate between Crisphead and Looseleaf lettuce, this type tends to be a large lettuce. These lettuces tend to be larger, bolt-resistant and well-flavored.  Most varieties are resistant to bolting and have good flavor. The outer leaves are thick and crisp and can be harvested as a looseleaf until the head starts to form. The heart is crisp, juicy and sweet with a slight nutty flavor. Varieties tend to mature in about 55 to 60 days.
6. Stem lettuce– This type is grown for its seedstalk, rather than its leaves, and is used in Asian cooking, primarily Chinese, as well as stewed and creamed dishes.
7. Oilseed lettuce – This type is grown for its seeds, which are pressed to extract an oil mainly used for cooking. It has few leaves, bolts quickly and produces seeds around 50 percent larger than other types of lettuce.

The butterhead and crisphead types are sometimes known together as “cabbage” lettuce, because their heads are shorter, flatter, and more cabbage-like than romaine lettuces.

Figure 1. Iceberg or crisphead lettuce

Figure 2. Leaf or loose leaf or cutting or bunching lettuce

Figure 3. Romaine or Cos lettuce

Figure 4. Butterhead, Boston or Bibb lettuce

Figure 5. Summer crisp or Batavian or French crisp lettuce

Figure 6. Stem lettuce

Lettuce nutrition facts

Depending on the variety, lettuce is an excellent source (20% of the Daily Value, DV, or higher) of vitamin K (97% DV) and vitamin A (21% DV), with higher concentrations of the provitamin A compound, beta-carotene, found in darker green lettuces, such as Romaine. With the exception of the iceberg variety, lettuce is also a good source (10-19% DV) of folate and iron (see Table 1, 2 and 3).

Table 1. Iceberg lettuce nutrition facts

Table 2. Romaine (cos) lettuce nutrition facts

Table 3. Butterhead (includes Boston and Bibb types) lettuce nutrition facts

Cabbage vs Lettuce

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) is a member of the genus Brassica and the mustard family, Brassicaceae. Several other cruciferous vegetables (sometimes known as cole crops) are considered cultivars of Brassica oleracea, including broccoli, collard greens, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage Brassica oleracea var. oleracea, also called colewort or field cabbage. This original species evolved over thousands of years into those seen today, as selection resulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves for kale and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli.

Cabbage is a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin K, containing 44% and 72%, respectively, of the Daily Value (DV) per 100 gram amount (see Table 4 below). Cabbage is also a moderate source (10–19% DV) of vitamin B6 and folate, with no other nutrients having significant content per 100 gram serving.

Basic research on cabbage phytochemicals is ongoing to discern if certain cabbage compounds may affect health or have anti-disease effects. Such compounds include sulforaphane and other glucosinolates which may stimulate the production of detoxifying enzymes during metabolism. Studies suggest that cruciferous vegetables, including cabbage, may have protective effects against colon cancer. Cabbage is a source of indole-3-carbinol, a chemical under basic research for its possible properties.

Figure 7. Cabbage

There are several cultivar groups of cabbage, each including many cultivars ⁹:

• Savoy – Characterized by crimped or curly leaves, mild flavor and tender texture.
• Spring Greens – Loose-headed, commonly sliced and steamed.
• Green – Light to dark green, slightly pointed heads. This is the most commonly grown cultivar.
• Red – Smooth red leaves, often used for pickling or stewing.
• White, also called Dutch – Smooth, pale green leaves.

Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed into the latter.

Table 4. Cabbage (raw) nutrition facts

Lettuce health benefits

Fresh vegetables and fruits are associated with lower risk of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Epidemiological studies have also demonstrated the relationship between dietary habits and disease risk. As a healthier foods, lettuce is an important leafy vegetable that is consumed fresh or in salads. Lettuce varieties have been investigated and reported to contain phenolic compounds with antioxidant activities ¹⁰. Studies have shown the health impacts of lettuce in preventing cardiovascular diseases in rats and humans ¹¹. Anticonvulsant and sedative-hypnotic effects have been mentioned for the leaves of this plant ¹². Sayyah et al. repoted that seeds extract had analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity in rats ¹³. Lettuce methanol extract has high phenolic contents and shows strong radical scavenging activity. It was effective against some Gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter cloacae, Serratia marcescens, Acinetobacter baumannii) and Gram positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium and Corynebacterium spp.). Moreover, methanol and aqueous extracts exhibited antiviral activity against HCMV and Cox-B3 viruses ¹⁴. The health-promoting benefits of lettuce have been attributed to the presence of vitamin C, phenolics and fiber ¹⁵, ¹⁶, ¹⁷. Llorach et al. ¹⁸ recently identified quercetin and luteolin rhamnosyl-hexosides in lettuce.

1. Characterisation of polyphenols and antioxidant properties of five lettuce varieties and escarole. Llorach R, Martínez-Sánchez A, Tomás-Barberán FA, Gil MI, Ferreres F. Food Chem. 2008 Jun 1; 108(3):1028-38.
2. Nicolle C, Cardinault N, Gueux E et al. Health effect of vegetable-based diet: lettuce consumption improves cholesterol metabolism and antioxidant status in the rat. Clin Nutr 2004; 23: 605–614. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15297097
3. Mulabagal V, Ngouajio M, Nair A, Zhang Y, Gottumukkala AL, Nair MG. In vitro evaluation of red and green lettuce (Lactuca sativa) for functional food properties. Food Chem 2010; 118: 300–306.
4. Lee WJ, Zhu BT. Inhibition of DNA methylation by caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid, two common catechol-containing coffee polyphenols. Carcinogenesis 2006; 27: 269–277. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16081510
5. Lu J, Papp LV, Fang J, Rodriguez-Nieto S, Zhivotovsky B, Holmgren A. Inhibition of mammalian thioredoxin reductase by some flavonoids: implications for myricetin and quercetin anticancer activity. Cancer Res 2006; 66: 4410–4418. http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/66/8/4410.long
6. Møller P, Loft S. Interventions with antioxidants and nutrients in relation to oxidative DNA damage and repair. Mutat Res 2004; 551: 79–89. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15225583
7. Altunkaya A, Gökmen V. Effect of various anti-browning agents on phenolic compounds profile of fresh lettuce (L. sativa). Food Chem 2009; 117: 122–126.
8. United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list
9. Ingram, Christine (2000). The Cook’s Guide to Vegetables. Hermes House. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-84038-842-8.
10. Llorach R, Martínez-Sánchez A, Tomás-Barberán FA, Gil MI, Ferreres F. Characterisation of polyphenols and antioxidant properties of five lettuce varieties and escarole. Food Chem. 2008;108:1028–1038.
11. Serafini M, Bugianesi R, Salucci M, Azzini E, Raguzzini A, Maiani G. Effect of acute ingestion of fresh and stored lettuce (Lactuca sativa) on plasma total antioxidant capacity and antioxidant levels in human subjects. Br J Nutr. 2002;88:615–623. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12493083
12. Chu Y, Sun J, Wu X, Liu RH. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activity of common vegetables. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50:6910–6916. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12405796
13. Sayyah M, Hadidi N, Kamalinejad M. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of Lactuca sativa seed extract in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:325–329. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15138019
14. Edziri HL, Smach MA, Ammar S, Mahjoub MA, Mighri Z, Aouni M, et al. et al. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiviral effects of Lactuca sativa extracts. Ind Crop Prod. 2011;34:1182–1185.
15. Mulabagal V, Ngouajio M, Nair A, Zhang Y, Gottumukkala AL, Nair MG. In vitro evaluation of red and green lettuce (Lactuca sativa) for functional food properties. Food Chem. 2010;118:300–306.
16. Nicolle C, Cardinault N, Gueux E, Jaffrelo L, Rock E, Mazur A. Health effect of vegetable-based diet: Lettuce consumption improves cholesterol metabolism and antioxidant status in the rat. Clin Nutr. 2004;23:605–614. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15297097
17. Zhan L, Hu J, Ai Z, Pang L, Li Y, Zhu M. Light exposure during storage preserving soluble sugar and L-ascorbic acid content of minimally processed romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.var. longifolia) Food Chem. 2013;136:273–278. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23017423
18. Llorach R, Martínez-Sánchez A, Tomás-Barberán FA, Gil MI, Ferreres F. Characterisation of polyphenols and antioxidant properties of five lettuce varieties and escarole. Food Chem. 2008;108:1028–1038. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26065768

What is camu camu

Camu camu (Myrciaria dubia) a tropical fruit that, commonly known as cacari or camocamo, is a small bushy riverside tree from the Amazon rainforest in Peru and Brazil, which grows to a height of 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft) and bears a red/purple cherry-like fruit. The camu camu fruit with a diameter of 1.0–3.2 cm has a thin, shiny skin with a juicy (and extremely acidic) pink pulp surrounding one to four seeds. The fruit is known to be a rich source of vitamin C ¹ and anthocyanins ², is not consumed in its natural state, except by the indigenous peoples who inhabit the fruit’s natural territories, because of its very high acidity; rather, it is generally consumed in the form of juices, purees, and pulp, the last to support beverage production and powder as a food additive.

The squeezed camu-camu fruit extract is also used in many kinds of sweets and drinks in Japan. Camu camu is a particularly versatile berry, with its pulp, seeds, and skin all presenting antioxidant potential in differing degrees once processed. The plant is present in many environments, which variously affect its biochemical profile and properties.

Figure 1. Camu camu berry

Camu camu powder nutrition facts

Camu camu fruits are a substantive source of minerals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and copper. Camu camu contain small amounts of pectin and starch. The major sugars are glucose and fructose. The fruits also contain a range of amino acids, organic acids (such as citric acid, isocitric acid, and malic acid), and fatty acids (predominantly stearic, linoleic, and oleic acid). There are 21 volatile compounds. Camu camu fruits are a major source of a range of bioactive compounds. These include many polyphenols (flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, stilbenes, and lignans). The compounds depend on state of maturity of the plant and extraction method used. Total phenolic content is higher than that in a range of other tropical fruits, with a higher content in seeds and peel. The antioxidant capacity is higher from flour produced from the camu camu skin and seed residue than from the pulp or pulp powder. Evidence for the anthocyanin content of camu camu is mixed.

Table 1. Camu camu powder nutrition facts

Camu camu benefits

Antioxidant capacity

Zanatta et al. ⁴ reported for the first time on the anthocyanin profile of camu camu in fruits from two regions of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The major anthocyanins were cyaniding-3-glucoside, which was the major pigment, followed by delphinidin-3-glucoside. In addition to their light attenuating role, anthocyanins act as powerful antioxidants. More recently, the antioxidant capacity of camu camu was reported to be the highest among the Brazilian fruits evaluated by Goncalves et al. ⁵. These results confirmed those of an earlier study by Rodrigues et al. ⁶, which examined fruit from two different sources. In that study, both samples exhibited significant and almost identical antioxidant properties through use of the total oxidant scavenging capacity assay against peroxyl radicals and peroxynitrite, although the effects of the two samples on hydroxyl radicals were substantially different.

Genovese et al. ⁷ reported on a comprehensive assessment of the bioactive compounds contents and antioxidant activity of five exotic fruits and seven commercial frozen pulps from Brazil ⁷. The assessment considered vitamin C and total phenolics content, together with antioxidant capacity (β-carotene/linoleic bleaching method and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl [DPPH] radical scavenging activity), flavonoids, chlorogenic acid content, and ellagic acid content. Among the fruits, camu camu demonstrated the highest vitamin C and total phenolics content and the highest 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl [DPPH] scavenging activity. The main flavonoids present were quercetin and kaempferol derivatives. Cyaniding derivatives were found only in camu camu. Camu camu and araca demonstrated the highest total ellagic acid contents. In particular, commercial frozen pulps had lower antioxidant capacity and bioactive compound content than the respective fruits. In addition, Chirinos et al. ⁸ reported on the antioxidant compounds and capacity of Peruvian camu camu at different ripening or maturity stages. The screening found that ascorbic acid decreased while anthocyanin, flavonol and flavonol contents, and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl [DPPH] antioxidant capacity increased during ripening. Fractionating camu camu found that an ascorbic acid–rich fraction was the major contributor to antioxidant capacity (67.5%–79.3%) while a phenolics-rich fraction had only a minor role (20.7%–32.5%) ⁹.

Myoda et al. ¹⁰ reported on the total phenolic contents and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of residual by-products of camu camu fruit production. They found that the seeds and fruit contained significantly more phenols than did other tropical fruits—notably in the seed. Fractionated seed and peel extracts showed potential antioxidant activity, with antimicrobial activity to Staphylococcus aureus, due to lipophilic constituents.

The polyphenol and vitamin C content, together with the antioxidant capacity of camu camu pulp powder and the dried flour from the skin and seeds residue from pulp preparation of camu camu, was reported in a recent paper by Fracassetti et al. ¹¹. The phenolic content of camu camu flour was higher than that of pulp powder. In both products, flavonol myricetin and conjugates, ellagic acid and conjugates, and ellagitannins were detected. Cyanidin 3-glucoside and quercetin (and its glucosoids) were found only in the pulp powder, while proanthocyanidins were found only in the flour. The vitamin C content was lower in the pulp powder with a higher radical-scavenging capacity.

Human Studies

Inoue et al. ¹² reported on the first in vivo study in humans of the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of camu camu. The study population consisted of 20 habitual male smokers who were considered to have an accelerated oxidative stress state. These volunteers were randomly assigned to take daily 1050 mg of vitamin C tablets or 70 mL of 100% camu camu juice containing 1050 mg of vitamin C as a dietary supplement for 7 days. Baseline characteristics, including cigarette consumption, tar and nicotine intake, and blood pressure, were similar in the two groups. In the camu camu group, at 7 days, oxidative stress markers urinary 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels and serum total reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels significantly decreased, as did the levels of the inflammatory markers high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8. No corresponding changes were observed in the vitamin C group. These markers were restored in the washout stage of 1 month after cessation of camu camu use. The authors concluded that camu camu has more powerful antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities than daily intake of 1500 mg of vitamin C, although the contents of vitamin C are equivalent. They also concluded, given the equivalent vitamin C contents, that camu camu possibly contains other antioxidative substances, including and in addition to the known presence of carotenoids and anthocyanins. A further possibility was that camu camu had substances, such as potassium, that increase the in vivo availability of vitamin C by absorption or excretion.

A more recent study by Ellinger et al. ¹³ reported on the effects of a bolus consumption of a blended juice of açai, Andean blackberries, and camu camu on the concentrations of plasma antioxidants, plasma antioxidant capacity, and markers for oxidative stress In this randomized controlled crossover study, 12 healthy participants consumed 400 mL of blended juice or a control sugar solution. The primary endpoint of the study was the total antioxidative capacity in blood; multiple assays with different radicals and mechanisms (hydrogen or electron transfer) were used: Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) and Folin-Ciocalteau (FCR). The results indicated that TWEAC and FCR as parameters of plasma antioxidative capacity were not affected by beverage, time, or interactions between beverage and time, despite an obvious increase in ascorbic acid and other substances with reducing capacity in plasma. Bolus ingestion of the blended juice only increased the concentration of plasma ascorbic acid and several unknown substances with reducing properties. Camu camu blended juice did not reduce markers of oxidative stress. Despite the mixed results for camu camu as a antioxidant, more studies are definitely needed to reinforce the existing evidence of its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative capability and to give more confidence to patients and physicians who are looking to alternative medicines.

Camu camu Safety in humans

The only published report of adverse events in humans probably associated with ingestion of a preparation containing camu camu was reported by Bertoli et al. ¹⁴. A 45-year-old man was admitted with a 2-week history of pruritus, scleral icterus, and dark urine and with fever and vomiting. Tests for hepatitis A, B, C and E viruses; Epstein-Barr virus; and cytomegalovirus ruled out viral hepatitis and metabolic or autoimmune cases of liver injury. Magnetic resonance cholangiography showed no abnormalities. A liver biopsy demonstrated centrilobular hepatocellular damage. There was no evidence of cholestasis. No necrotic hepatocytes, eosinophilia, or epithelioid granulomas were present. There was no identifiable fibrosis. Histologic findings were compatible with drug toxicity of not very recent origin. Application of the Naranjo et al. ¹⁵ adverse-reaction probability scale suggested camu camu as the most likely cause of the acute hepatitis. Signs of liver injury gradually improved, and the patient was discharged.

1. Maatta KR, Kamal-Eldin A, Torronen AR. 2003. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of phenolic compounds in berries with diode array and electrospray ionization mass spectrometric (MS) detection: Ribes species. J Agric Food Chem 51:6736–6744.
2. Zanatta CF, Cuevas E, Bobbio FO, Winterhalter P, Mercadante AZ. 2005. Determination of anthocyanins from camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) by HPLC-PDA, HPLC-MS,and NMR. J Agric Food Chem 53:9531–9535.
3. United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. USDA Branded Food Products Database. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list
4. Determination of anthocyanins from camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) by HPLC-PDA, HPLC-MS, and NMR. Zanatta CF, Cuevas E, Bobbio FO, Winterhalter P, Mercadante AZ. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Nov 30; 53(24):9531-5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16302773/
5. Chemical composition and antioxidant/antidiabetic potential of Brazilian native fruits and commercial frozen pulps. De Souza Schmidt Gonçalves AE, Lajolo FM, Genovese MI. J Agric Food Chem. 2010 Apr 28; 58(8):4666-74. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20337450/
6. Rodrigues R, Papagiannopoulos M, Maia J, Yuyama K, Marx F. Antioxidant capacity of camu-camu [Myrciaria dubia (H. B. K.) McVaugh] pulp. Ernährung/Nutrition 2006;30:357–362
7. Genovese MI, Da Silva Pinto M, De Souza Schmidt Gonçalves AE, Lajolo FM. Bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of exotic fruits and commercial frozen pulps from Brazil. Food Sci Technol Int 2008;14:207–214
8. Chirinos R, Galarza J, Betalleluz-Pallardel I, Pedreschi R, Campos D. Antioxidant compounds and antioxidant capacity of Peruvian camu camu (Myrciara dubia[H.B.K.] McVaugh) fruit at different maturity stages. Food Chem 2010;120:1019–1024
9. Langley PC, Pergolizzi JV, Taylor R, Ridgway C. Antioxidant and Associated Capacities of Camu Camu (Myrciaria dubia): A Systematic Review. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 2015;21(1):8-14. doi:10.1089/acm.2014.0130. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4296744/
10. Myoda T, Fujimura S, Park BJ, Nagashima T, Nakagawa J, Nishizawa M. Antioxidative and antimicrobial potential of residues of camu-camu juice production. J Food Agricult Environ 2010;8:304–307.
11. Ellagic acid derivatives, ellagitannins, proanthocyanidins and other phenolics, vitamin C and antioxidant capacity of two powder products from camu-camu fruit (Myrciaria dubia). Fracassetti D, Costa C, Moulay L, Tomás-Barberán FA. Food Chem. 2013 Aug 15; 139(1-4):578-88. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23561148/
12. Tropical fruit camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) has anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Inoue T, Komoda H, Uchida T, Node K. J Cardiol. 2008 Oct; 52(2):127-32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18922386/
13. Bolus consumption of a specifically designed fruit juice rich in anthocyanins and ascorbic acid did not influence markers of antioxidative defense in healthy humans. Ellinger S, Gordon A, Kürten M, Jungfer E, Zimmermann BF, Zur B, Ellinger J, Marx F, Stehle P. J Agric Food Chem. 2012 Nov 14; 60(45):11292-300.
14. Bertoli R, Mazzuchelli L, Cerny A. Acute hepatitis associated with the use of natural product camu-camu. Open J Gastroenterol 2013;3:214–216.
15. A method for estimating the probability of adverse drug reactions. Naranjo CA, Busto U, Sellers EM, Sandor P, Ruiz I, Roberts EA, Janecek E, Domecq C, Greenblatt DJ. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1981 Aug; 30(2):239-45. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7249508/

What is bitter melon

Bitter melon (Momordica charantia) is a commonly consumed vegetable that is found throughout the sub-tropical world (China, India, Thailand, East Africa, The Caribbean, Central and South America) and is known by various names, such as balsam pear, bitter gourd, bitter squash, carilla, cerasee (wild variety), cundeamor, goo-fah, African cucumber and Karela ¹. All parts of the plant, including the fruit, taste bitter ². Hence, the fruits are usually cooked with different vegetables, stir-fried, stuffed or used in small quantities in soups or beans to give a slightly bitter flavor and taste. Several parts of bitter melon, including fruits, flowers, and young shoots, are used in various Asian dishes as a flavoring agent. The shoots and leaves of bitter melon are also cooked and consumed as vegetables and fruit extracts are also used in tea preparations ³. Bitter melon is also used as a vegetable in India and other Asian countries and as an ingredient in some kinds of curries.

Bitter melon is used traditionally for various stomach and intestinal disorders including gastrointestinal (GI) upset, ulcers, colitis, constipation, and intestinal worms ⁴, ⁵. Bitter melon is also used for diabetes, kidney stones, fever, a skin condition called psoriasis, and liver disease; to start menstruation; and as supportive treatment for people with HIV/AIDS ⁶, ⁷.

Topically, bitter melon is used for deep skin infections (abscesses) and wounds.

Figure 1. Bitter melon

Bitter melon nutritional facts

The nutritional analysis has revealed that bitter melon fruits are a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Bitter melon possesses the highest nutritive value among cucurbits ⁸. The vitamin C content of Chinese bitter melon varies significantly (440–780 mg/kg edible portion), while variation in nutrient contents has been observed in bitter melon including carbohydrates, proteins, zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, and ascorbic acid ⁹. The crude protein content of bitter melon fruits (11.4–20.9 g/kg) is higher than that of tomato and cucumber ¹⁰. The pulp around the seeds of the mature ripe fruit is a rich source of the carotenoid lycopene ¹¹.

Table 1. Bitter melon nutritional facts

Bitter melon extract

At latest count, approximately 228 different compounds with possible medicinal properties, acting alone or in combination, have been isolated from bitter melon fruit, seeds, leaves, stems, pericaps, endosperm, callus tissues, and cotyledons ¹³. Among these, the most actively studied constituents shown to improve glycemic control include charatin, polypeptide-p, vicine, momordin, and similar derivatives (e.g., momordinol, momordicilin, momorcharin, momordicin) ¹⁴, ¹⁵. The medicinal value of bitter melon has been attributed to its high antioxidant properties due in part to phenols, flavonoids, isoflavones, terpenes, anthroquinones, and glucosinolates, all of which confer a bitter taste ¹⁶.

Bitter melon health benefits

Bitter melon has been studied for several decades because of its use as a food product and several traditional medical uses. Various extracts of bitter melon are studied for biological activities, including anti-oxidant ¹⁷, anti-diabetic ¹⁸, anti-cancer ¹⁹, anti-inflammatory ²⁰, anti-bacterial ²¹, antifungal ²², anti-viral ²³, anti-HIV ²⁴, anti-helminthic ²⁵, anti-mycobacterial ²⁶, hypotensive ²⁷, anti-obesity ²⁸, immunomodulatory ²⁹, anti-hyperlipidemic ³⁰, hepatoprotective ³¹, and neuropro-tective ³² activities. Several chemical constituents such as cucurbitane type triterpenoids, cucurbitane type glycosides, triterpene saponins, phenolic, and flavonoid compounds, and some protein fractions have been isolated from bitter melon ³³.

The effectiveness ratings for bitter melon (Momordica charantia) are as follows:

Insufficient evidence to rate effectiveness for:

• Diabetes. Research results so far are conflicting and inconclusive. Some studies show that bitter melon fruit, fruit juice, or extract improves glucose tolerance, reduces blood sugar levels, and lowers HbA1c (a measure of blood sugar control over time) in people with type 2 diabetes. However, these studies have some flaws. Other research has not been positive.
• Psoriasis.
• HIV/AIDS.
• Stomach and intestinal disorders.
• Kidney stones.
• Liver disease.
• Skin abscesses and wounds.
• Other conditions.

Clinical studies reported mostly lack appropriate study design and are inconclusive. More evidence is needed to rate the effectiveness of bitter melon for these uses.

Bitter melon and diabetes

The public have used different parts of bitter melon (Momordica charantia) including the leaves, the stem and mainly the green fruits or seeds to treat diabetes. Figure 2 shows the chemical structures of momocharin (1) and momordicin (2) which is believed to possess insulin-like chemical structure and properties. People eat the fruit raw, boil or cook the different parts or drink the pulp of the fruit as a juice. Over the years several scientists have tried to isolate the various active ingredient of bitter melon for commercial purpose.

Over the past 50 years, both basic and clinical studies have been done to determine the effect of bitter melon on the management of diabetes mellitus. Table 2 shows the effect of oral administration of bitter melon on human type 2 diabetes mellitus. They were administered with a hot water extract, concoction, the fruit, the fruit juice or the seeds ³⁴. Of the five studies presented in Table 2, only two studies show no effect on type 2 diabetes mellitus patient ³⁵, ³⁶. However, overall, it remains controversial whether bitter melon has proven benefits in lowering blood sugar among pre-diabetics or aids in slowing the progression to diabetes ⁶. While the evidence to date, when examined as a whole, is suggestive of a possible beneficial effect, future clinical studies that meet rigorous methodological standards are warranted before attempts to establish clinical recommendations regarding the use of bitter melon for pre-diabetics and diabetics.

Figure 2. Chemical Structure of Bitter melon’s Momorcharin and Momorcidin

Table 2. Effects of Oral Administration of Bitter Melon on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

What dose is used ?

The appropriate dose of bitter melon depends on several factors such as the user’s age, health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information to determine an appropriate range of doses for bitter melon. Keep in mind that natural products are not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional before using.

Bitter melon side effects

Bitter melon fruit is POSSIBLY SAFE for most people when taken by mouth in the short-term ⁴¹. The safety of long-term use (beyond 3 months) is not known – the risk associated with the long-term use of bitter melon supplements have not been studied. There also is not enough information about the safety of consuming other parts of the bitter melon or applying bitter melon to the skin.

The most commonly observed adverse effects include mild diarrhea and abdominal pain, which subside after discontinuing use ⁴². However, bitter melon has been shown to potentiate the effect of certain drugs used to treat diabetes, possibly resulting in hypoglycemia ⁴³. Rare cases of hypoglycemic coma and convulsions have been reported in children drinking bitter melon tea ⁴⁴. A single case report has suggested that bitter melon may induce paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, based on a Naranjo adverse drug reaction score of 6 (corresponding to a probable causal association) ⁴⁵. Bitter melon use also is contraindicated during pregnancy because of its abortifacient properties ⁴⁶.

Special precautions & warnings

Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Bitter melon is LIKELY UNSAFE when taken by mouth during pregnancy. Traditionally, bitter melon has also been used as an abortifacient agent used to induce abortions. Therefore, pregnant women are advised to avoid consumption of the plant ⁴⁷. Certain chemicals in bitter melon fruit, juice, and seeds can start menstrual bleeding and have caused abortion in animals. Not enough is known about the safety of using bitter melon during breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use.

Diabetes: Bitter melon can lower blood sugar levels. If you have diabetes and take medications to lower your blood sugar, adding bitter melon might make your blood sugar drop too low. Monitor your blood sugar carefully.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency: People with G6PD deficiency might develop “favism” after eating bitter melon seeds. Favism is a condition named after the fava bean, which is thought to cause “tired blood” (anemia), headache, fever, stomach pain, and coma in certain people. A chemical found in bitter melon seeds is related to chemicals in fava beans. If you have G6PD deficiency, avoid bitter melon.

Surgery: There is a concern that bitter melon might interfere with blood sugar control during and after surgery. Stop using bitter melon at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery.

Interactions with medications

Moderate – Be cautious with this combination.

Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs)

Bitter melon can decrease blood sugar levels. Diabetes medications are also used to lower blood sugar. Taking bitter melon along with diabetes medications might cause your blood sugar to be too low. Monitor your blood sugar closely. The dose of your diabetes medication might need to be changed.

Some medications used for diabetes include glimepiride (Amaryl), glyburide (DiaBeta, Glynase PresTab, Micronase), insulin, pioglitazone (Actos), rosiglitazone (Avandia), chlorpropamide (Diabinese), glipizide (Glucotrol), tolbutamide (Orinase), and others.

Are there interactions with herbs and supplements ?

Herbs and supplements that might lower blood sugar

Bitter melon can lower blood glucose levels. Using it with other herbs or supplements that have the same effect might cause blood sugar levels to drop too low. Some herbs and supplements that can lower blood sugar include alpha-lipoic acid, chromium, devil’s claw, fenugreek, garlic, guar gum, horse chestnut, Panax ginseng, psyllium, Siberian ginseng, and others.

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What is oregano oil good for

Oregano (Origanum vulgare) is a perennial herb with olive-green leaves and purple flowers, native to temperate Western and Southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region. Turkey is one of the largest exporters of oregano. It now grows on most continents and under a variety of conditions. Countries known for producing high-quality oregano essential oils include Greece, Israel, and Turkey. Oregano grows 1-3 feet tall and is closely related to mint, thyme, marjoram, basil, sage, and lavender, with opposite leaves 1–4 cm (0.39–1.57 in) long. The flowers are purple, 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) long, produced in erect spikes. It is sometimes called wild marjoram, and its close relative, O. majorana, is known as sweet marjoram. Outside of the U.S. and Europe, plants referred to as “oregano” may be other species of Origanum, or other members of the Lamiaceae family.

Oregano oil and oregano have been used in folk medicine since ancient times ¹. Oregano essential oil is extracted from the leaves of the oregano plant. Some people take oregano by mouth for respiratory tract disorders such as coughs, asthma, allergies, croup, and bronchitis. Oregano is also taken by mouth for stomach disorders such as heartburn, bloating, and parasites. It is also taken by mouth for painful menstrual cramps, rheumatoid arthritis, urinary tract disorders including urinary tract infections (UTIs), headaches, diabetes, bleeding after having a tooth pulled, heart conditions, and high cholesterol. Although oregano or its oil may be used as a dietary supplement, there is no clinical evidence to indicate that either has any effect on human health ².

Proponents of oil of oregano claim it can treat a variety of illnesses, including sinus disorders. Like many spices, oregano does have some antibacterial and antifungal properties — making it at least plausible that it might help or prevent some sinus problems caused by bacteria and fungi.

Oregano oil is applied to the skin for skin conditions including acne, athlete’s foot, dandruff, canker sores, warts, wounds, ringworm, rosacea, and psoriasis; as well as for insect and spider bites, gum disease, toothaches, muscle and joint pain, and varicose veins. Oregano oil is also applied to the skin as an insect repellent.

Unfortunately, there have been no published human trials that have looked at oregano oil specifically for this use. For this reason, it isn’t known what role, if any, oil of oregano plays in treating or preventing sinusitis.

In 2005, the US Federal Trade Commission brought legal action against a firm that had claimed oregano oil treated colds and flu or relieved bacterial and viral infections ³. In 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration warned a Utah company, Young Living, that its herbal products, including oregano essential oil, were being promoted to have numerous anti-disease effects and so were being sold as unauthorized misbranded drugs subject to seizure and federal penalties ⁴.

In the foods and beverages industry, oregano and oregano oil are used as a culinary spice, flavoring and food preservative.

Figure 1. Oregano

Oregano oil and candida (test tube studies)

Oregano has antioxidant properties and exhibits antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi ⁵, ⁶. The effects of oregano essential oil on yeasts of medical importance such as Candida albicans isolated from human patients have also been studied ⁷. Some studies suggest that oregano exerts a therapeutic effect when administered to rats experimentally infected with Trichophyton rubrum ⁵. The antifungal activity of oregano essential oil against some species of Aspergillus such as A. parasiticus , A. niger , A. flavus and A. ochraceus was demonstrated in studies where it was shown to inhibit growth and aflatoxin production ⁸. In animal and test tube studies, Aligiannis et al . ⁹ evaluated the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the essential oils of two species of Oregano and found values between 0.28 and 1.27 mg per mL for bacteria and from 0.65 to 1.27 mg per mL for fungi, which are similar to the values found in another study ¹⁰.

Chromatographic analysis of oregano essential oil revealed the presence of 4-terpineol, γ-terpinene, thymol and carvacrol [2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)phenol] ¹¹ among its main constituents. They possess multiple biological properties such as anti-inflammatory, anti-leishmanial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective and anti-tumoral activities ¹², ¹³. The concentration of phenolic monoterpenes was high as compared to those of the other compounds present in the oil (see Table 1). Some monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes could be responsible for the susceptibility of the fungal isolates tested to this essential oil, since the antifungal activity of oregano oil has been attributed to thymol, carvacrol and eugenol ¹⁴.

According to some studies, the composition, quality and content of essential oils present in plants are subject to great variation and are influenced by diverse factors such as the geographical and climatic conditions as well as the conditions used for culture, drying and storage ¹⁵.

Inhibition of microorganisms by essential oils seems to rely on different mechanisms of action ¹⁶. Toxic effects on membrane structure and function have been generally used to explain the antimicrobial action of essential oils and their monoterpenoid compounds ¹⁷.

Some studies suggest that the antimicrobial action of essential oils can be a consequence of a negative effect on enzymes, including those involved in the production of energy and synthesis of structural components of the microorganism, in addition to destruction or inactivation of genetic material ¹⁸.

Phenolic compounds present in essential oils may disturb membrane-embedded proteins and inhibit cellular respiration. Also, alterations in the ion transport processes of the cell membrane and modifications in the activity of calcium channels can cause an increase in cell permeability and consequent release of vital intracellular constituents ¹⁸.

Our conclusion: Despite positive results in test tube studies, there is currently no human study that could prove the anti-candida (antifungal) effect of oregano essential oil, we therefore put these test results as inconclusive and not recommended for clinical use. More research would be needed to confirm these test tube findings.

Table 1. Compounds identified in Oregano essential oil using chromatographic analysis

Oregano oil and Staph infection (test tube studies)

Staphylococci are important pathogens. Eradication of these micro-organisms is not always successful due to their ability to form biofilms. Experimental evidence has shown that micro-organisms in biofilms are less susceptible to conventional treatment ²⁰ than their planktonic counterparts. Many factors contribute to the lowered susceptibility of bacteria enclosed in a biofilm, and include the induction of a biofilm phenotype, the stress response and failure of the antimicrobial agents to penetrate the biofilm ²¹. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the study of plant materials as sources of new compounds for processing into therapeutic agents. One approach may be the use of oregano essential oils that have been shown to be potential agents in the treatment of infections, and are safe in terms of human and animal health. In this context, oregano oil and its major phenolic components, carvacrol [2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)phenol] and thymol [2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol], are known for their wide spectrum of antimicrobial activity, which has been the subject of several investigations in test tubes ¹¹ and in animals ²². In a test tube study scientists have shown that oregano essential oils inhibited growth of preformed biofilm and interfered with biofilm formation during planktonic growth of Staph bacteria. The antimicrobial activity of oregano oil is mostly attributed to the action of its principal phenolic components, carvacrol [2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)phenol] and thymol [2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol], which exhibit significant bactericidal activity when tested separately ²³. Due to their hydrophobic nature, carvacrol and thymol interact with the lipid bilayer of cytoplasmic membranes causing loss of integrity and leakage of cellular material such as ions, ATP and nucleic acid ²⁴. Hence, carvacrol and thymol, alone or in oregano oil, could diffuse through the polysaccharide matrix of the biofilm and destabilize it due to their strong intrinsic antimicrobial properties. This hypothesis is supported by the anti-plaque effects of a thymol-based mouthwash, in part attributable to rapid-kill and plaque-permeating abilities ²⁵.

Table 2. Comparative analysis of antimicrobial and anti-biofilm potential of thymol, carvacrol and citral against biofilm forming micro-organisms

Carvacrol and thymol may also be responsible for the effects observed on biofilm formation. Knowles et al. ³¹ suggested that continued exposure of Staph aureus to non-biocidal concentrations of carvacrol disrupted normal development of dual-species biofilm, preventing the build up of protein mass, arresting at the microcolony stage. Alternatively, the oils could interact with surface proteins, leading to an alteration of the bacterial cell surface and in part compromising the initial attachment phase to polystyrene microtitre plates. In this context, Juven et al. ³² suggested a reaction between phenolic compounds (such as thymol) and bacterial membrane proteins.

The findings of the present test tube study highlight the promising role of oregano, carvacrol and thymol as new lead structures in the search for novel antibacterial agents. Data in the literature on the availability and pharmacokinetics of carvacrol and thymol ³³ and on acute and short-term in vivo effects, suggest that they may not pose a risk for human and animal health ³⁴. Moreover, both carvacrol and thymol have been classified as GRAS (generally recognized as safe) and their use in food has been approved by European Parliament and Council for the food industry uses primarily for flavoring and aromatizing foods ³⁵ making them a potential option for developing anti-microbial drugs. Therefore, further experiments are needed substantiate these findings and support their use in human clinical trials as anti-bacterial and anti-fungal.

How effective is oregano oil ?

Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database rates effectiveness based on scientific evidence according to the following scale: Effective, Likely Effective, Possibly Effective, Possibly Ineffective, Likely Ineffective, Ineffective, and Insufficient Evidence to Rate.

The effectiveness ratings for oregano are as follows ³⁶:

Insufficient evidence to rate effectiveness for:

• Parasites in the intestines. Some early research shows that taking 200 mg of a specific oregano leaf oil product (ADP, Biotics Research Corporation, Rosenberg, Texas) by mouth three times daily with meals for 6 weeks can kill certain types of parasites; however, these parasites usually do not require medical treatment.
• Wound healing. Early research suggests that applying an oregano extract to the skin twice daily for up to 14 days after a minor skin surgery might reduce the risk of infection and improve scars.
• Acne.
• Allergies.
• Arthritis.
• Asthma.
• Athlete’s foot.
• Bleeding disorders.
• Bronchitis.
• Cough.
• Oil of oregano for colds
• Dandruff.
• Flu.
• Headaches.
• Heart conditions.
• High cholesterol.
• Indigestion and bloating.
• Muscle and joint pain.
• Painful menstrual periods.
• Urinary tract infections (UTI).
• Varicose veins.
• Warts.
• Other conditions.

More evidence is needed to rate oregano for these uses.

Oregano oil side effects

Oregano leaf and oregano oil are LIKELY SAFE when taken in amounts commonly found in food. Oregano leaf is POSSIBLY SAFE when taken by mouth or applied to the skin appropriately as medicine. Mild side effects include stomach upset. Oregano might also cause an allergic reaction in people who have an allergy to plants in the Lamiaceae family. Oregano oil should not be applied to the skin in concentrations greater than 1% as this might cause irritation.

Special precautions and warnings

Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Oregano is POSSIBLY UNSAFE when taken by mouth in medicinal amounts during pregnancy. There is concern that taking oregano in amounts larger than food amounts might cause miscarriage. There is not enough reliable information about the safety of taking oregano if you are breast feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use.

Bleeding disorders: Oregano might increase the risk of bleeding in people with bleeding disorders.

Allergies: Oregano can cause reactions in people allergic to Lamiaceae family plants, including basil, hyssop, lavender, marjoram, mint, and sage.

Diabetes: Oregano might lower blood sugar levels. People with diabetes should use oregano cautiously.

Surgery: Oregano might increase the risk of bleeding. People who use oregano should stop 2 weeks before surgery.

Are there interactions with medications ?

Moderate – Be cautious with this combination.

• Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs)

Oregano might decrease blood sugar. Diabetes medications are used to lower blood sugar. In theory, taking some medications for diabetes along with oregano might cause your blood sugar to go too low. Monitor your blood sugar closely. The dose of your diabetes medication might need to be changed.

Some medications used for diabetes include glimepiride (Amaryl), glyburide (DiaBeta, Glynase PresTab, Micronase), insulin, metformin (Glucophage), pioglitazone (Actos), rosiglitazone (Avandia), and others..

• Medications that slow blood clotting (Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs)

Oregano might slow blood clotting. In theory, taking oregano along with medications that also slow clotting might increase the chances of bruising and bleeding.

Some medications that slow blood clotting include aspirin, clopidogrel (Plavix), dabigatran (Pradaxa), dalteparin (Fragmin), enoxaparin (Lovenox), heparin, warfarin (Coumadin), and others..

Are there interactions with herbs and supplements ?

• Copper

Oregano might interfere with copper absorption. Using oregano along with copper might decrease the absorption of copper.

• Herbs and supplements that can lower blood sugar

Oregano might lower blood sugar. In theory, taking oregano along with herbs and supplements that also lower blood sugar might reduce blood sugar levels too much. Some herbs and supplements that might lower blood sugar include alpha-lipoic acid, bitter melon, chromium, devil’s claw, fenugreek, garlic, guar gum, horse chestnut, Panax ginseng, psyllium, Siberian ginseng, and others.

• Herbs and supplements that might slow blood clotting

Using oregano along with herbs that can slow blood clotting might increase the risk of bleeding in some people. These herbs include angelica, clove, danshen, garlic, ginger, ginkgo, Panax ginseng, horse chestnut, red clover, turmeric, and others.

• Iron

Oregano might interfere with iron absorption. Using oregano along with iron might decrease the absorption of iron.

• Zinc

Oregano might interfere with zinc absorption. Using oregano along with zinc might decrease the absorption of zinc.

Are there interactions with foods ?

There are no known interactions with foods.

What dose is used ?

The appropriate dose of oregano depends on several factors such as the user’s age, health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information to determine an appropriate range of doses for oregano (in children/in adults). Keep in mind that natural products are not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional before using.

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What is allspice

Even though its name suggests a mixture of spices, allspice is a single berry from the Jamaican bayberry tree. Allspice, also called pimenta, Jamaica pimenta, Jamaican pepper, Pimento Berries or Newspice ¹. The name “allspice” was coined as early as 1621 by the English, who thought it combined the flavor of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. Allspice has an aroma similar to a mixture of nutmeg, cinnamon and cloves ². Allspice is the dried fruit of the Pimenta dioica plant. A native plant from the Caribbean island Jamaica, Pimenta dioica belongs to the family Myrtaceae. Unlike the common black peppercorns which are fruits from a tropical vine (Piper nigram, L) which is the native of South Asia, Pimenta is a typical Evergreen tree with a height of 22 ft. Occasionally the trees grow up to 43 feet tall with light gray bark and dark green leaves (4–8 cm long). Small whitish flowers grow on the allspice tree in the summer that produces the berries. The berries are picked while still green and unripe and are traditionally dried in the sun. The berries (Allspice) become brown when they’re dried and look like large, brown, smooth peppercorns. Allspice was originally native to the tropical forests of South and Central America, southern Mexico and the West Indies. Allspice is grown commercially in Mexico, Honduras, Trinidad, Cuba and in Jamaica. Commercial Allspice is also obtained from the fruits of another related species, Pimenta racemosa (Myrtacea, L) mostly found in Central America. However, the fruits are larger and are known to be less aromatic. Jamaica is also the world’s largest producer of allspice and Jamaican allspice is renowned for being of exceptional quality because it contains a higher level of essential oils, which give it more flavor than Allspice grown in other Caribbean islands or in Central America ³. Pimenta trees are dispersed around the world with Allspice spelled in over 50 languages from Arabic to Vietnamese.

The whole allspice fruits have a longer shelf life than the powdered product, and produce a more aromatic product when freshly ground before use. Whole, allspice is used in poached fish stock, vegetable and fruit pickles and for wild game. Ground, allspice is found in spice cakes, puddings, cookies, gravies, BBQ sauce and is a key ingredient in Caribbean jerk dishes. It is also often used in German sausages and is so common in English baking that it’s sometimes known as English Spice. Sometimes allspice is used as a partial replacement for black pepper in frankfurters and some smoked products ².

Allspice can also be found in essential oil form. Allspice contains a small amount of eugenol, the essential oil that gives cloves their strong, distinct flavor. Since eugenol is both warming and anti-microbial, Russian soldiers in the Napoleonic War of 1812 put allspice in their boots to help keep their feet warm and alleviate odor. This practice carried into the men’s cosmetic industry, so that today the scent of allspice is often found in men’s colognes.

Allspice fresh leaves are used where available. They are similar in texture to bay leaves, thus are infused during cooking and then removed before serving. Unlike bay leaves, they lose much flavor when dried and stored, so do not figure in commerce. The leaves and wood are often used for smoking meats where allspice is a local crop.

Figure 1. Allspice

Figure 2. Allspice berries

What is allspice used for

Non-medicinal use of Allspice

Whole or powdered Allspice is sold in the grocery stores throughout the world and is used in the cuisines of Middle East and Central America as well in European pastries. In Caribbean cuisines, Allspice is the most important spice and used extensively, it’s used in Jamaican jerk seasoning, in mole sauces and pickling. The meats that are seasoned with Allspice are then cooked over a P. dioica wood fire. Jamaicans also soak the berries in rum to make a special liqueur. In other countries Allspice is used mostly in baking desserts such as pumpkin pies, banana bread spice cake, bread pudding and gingerbread. In the British isles, Allspice is added in stews, sauces and for flavoring pickled vegetables.

The essential oil extracted from Allspice have typical aroma of a combination of pepper, nutmeg, clove and cinnamon. The scented oil from Allspice have been used in perfumery, candle making and in other cosmetic manufacturing. Similarly, scents extracted from fresh or dried leaves of Pimenta are also known to impart stimulating effect with the mildly spicy aroma. In recent years, in societies’ drive for natural alternatives to pesticides and fungicides, the extracts of Pimenta leaves have been used as food fumigant to preserve freshness and sterility of meat and poultry products ⁴. In similar areas where synthetic pesticides are used like the wood protection and plant disease treatments, Allspice essential oils also have been substituted as a natural alternate for pesticides and fungicide ⁵.

Allspice Medicinal Uses

Traditional Folk Medicine

All parts of Pimenta dioica are used in Folk medicine, the kind of medicine developed over centuries by empirical and in often times by anecdotal evidences and other approaches. In Caribbean, there is a long history of using Allspice berries for folk healing. Jamaicans also drink hot tea with Allspice for colds, dysmenorrhea (menstrual cramps) and dyspepsia (upset stomach) ¹. Costa Ricans are known to use Allspice to treat dyspepsia and diabetes. Guatemalans are known to apply crushed Allspice berries to bruises, sore joints and for myalgia (muscle ache). In Cuban medicine, Allspice along with other herbal mixtures is used to relieve indigestion. Not only used in the areas where Allspice originated from, its use has been incorporated in the Indian traditional medicine, the Ayurveda.

Allspice use in Ayurveda, which has been developed over the last two millennia, has likely originated from European colonization and subsequent use of it in Portuguese and the English populace in India. Its use includes use to relieve respiratory congestion and assorted odontalgia (toothache). In Europe, anecdotal uses of Allspice extract for dyspepsia and as purgative exist. The use of Allspice in folk medicine was also followed by its incorporation in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1898, especially of pimento oil and pimento water. Oil of pimento, however, was deleted from the British Pharmacopeia of 1914. The British Pharmacopeia Codex supposedly still retained pimento water ⁶. In modern herbal medicine, Allspice extract has been used for neuralgic pain. Allspice essential oil, when added to massage oils and baths, is known to promote circulation so as to relieve pain from muscle cramps and strains. Also, it is used for headache, to combat stress and depression and to overcome fatigue because of its comforting scent. Allspice blends well with ginger, lavender and other spices, making it diversified when it comes to the choices for aromatherapy.

The reason why Allspice is used for treating indigestion might be due to the abundance of the common polyphenol, Eugenol, in Allspice, which is known to stimulate digestive enzymes ⁷. Furthermore, it has been shown that Eugenol has analgesic effect in neuralgia; it is often used as anesthetic by dentists ⁷. Eugenol could potentially contribute to the anti-inflammatory function associated with Allspice in traditional medicine. The widespread and diverse uses of Allspice, the leaves and barks of Pimenta have stimulated several studies in the last two decades on systematic investigations of the potential evidence-based medical use of Pimenta. Although, most uses of Allspice as folk medicine are inherited from ancestors among different cultures, more scientific studies have been carried out for a systematic assessment of its active components from leaves, bark and berries of Pimenta and to delineate potential medicinal values of chemicals enriched or isolated from Pimenta dioica.

Allspice Potential Health Benefits

Most of the chemical extractions of allspice have been reported for its leaves and berries. To date, the most common ingredients tested are polyphenols, lignins and terpenoids. Interestingly, none of the characterized compounds isolated is an alkaloid. Table 1 lists the main well characterized compounds isolated to date from allspice. It should be noted however, other than the chemicals isolated from fresh leaves of Pimenta dioica, many of the compounds reported to be in Allspice could potentially be from other known species that produce Allspice, Pimenta racemosa, as commercial Allspice (both berries and powdered form) is a mix of berries from either species. Table 1 highlights compounds that have shown significant medicinal potential as validated by controlled studies involving either biochemical experiments or control animals studies. The biological properties exhibited by Allspice extracts can be loosely classified as oxygen scavenges (antioxidants), vasodilators (antihypertensive) and antiproliferative agents with potential for application in cancer chemoprevention and therapies.

Table 1. Potential Pharmaceutical Products in Allspice (Pimenta dioica)

Antioxidant Activities

Oxygen free radicals like Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), hydroxyl radical, as well as Reactive Nitrogen Species are products of normal cellular metabolism, but their overproduction causes biological damage, the oxidative stress. Oxidative stress cause damage to DNA, proteins and lipids, and has been widely implicated in various pathological conditions involving cancer, neurological disorders, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, aging and other chronic and fatal diseases. Recently, there have been intensive researches about the antioxidant properties of natural dietary agents because of the free radical scavenging ability shown by the whole extract of plants and the components out of it. Examples of compounds derived from common dietary sources include resveratrol from grape seeds, green tea catecholamine such as (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and the common, ascorbic acid. In addition, recently it has been shown that some commonly used herbs and spices are also rich in antioxidants, may even outperform those fruit and vegetables when compared in equivalent consumable quantities. Allspice is known for its antioxidant activities ²² and many compounds that have antioxidant activities have been isolated and characterized. The ethyl acetate extract of Allspice which contained polyphenols show strong antioxidant activities and free radical-scavenging activity against 1,1diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazl (DPPH) radical ²³. Many already known compounds are isolated from leaves and berries of Pimenta Dioica, with antioxidant properties, such as Eugenol ²⁴, Quercetin ²³, Gallic acid ²⁰ and others.

Extracts of Pimenta Leaves Have Hypotensive Effect

Known as folk remedy used for treatment of high blood pressure, obesity and digestion problem in Central America, as well as treatment for menstrual cramps and abdominal pain in Caribbean culture, cardiovascular effects of Pimenta dioica were investigated. Hypotensive action which is shown by decreased blood pressure level was confirmed by giving Sprague-Dawleyrats intravenous administration of aqueous extract of Pimenta Dioica ²⁵. Further, it has been reported that the allspice leaf extract has central nervous system (CNS) depressant effect at the same time. Analgesic and hypothermic effects were also observed with no significant changes in heart rate, body weight and no other abnormalities. Importantly, it is mentioned that aqueous fraction of Allspice generated greater hypotensive effect than the ethanol extract of identical doses. Another study using Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats also showed the aqueous extract of Allspice, which outperforms than the ethanol counterpart, causes depression of the CNS in a dose-dependent manner, but it didn’t produce significant changes in blood pressure ²⁶. It is also noted that the hypotensive action was not mediated through cholinergic, alpha or beta adrenergic receptors and the extract may have vasorelaxing activity.

Menopause Treatment

Menopause symptoms affect about 70% of women approaching menopause with hormone replacement therapy (HRT) as the standard treatment. Interestingly, in south and Central America, women typically experience menopause earlier than the U.S. counterparts, however, they tend less to use hormone replacement therapy and they perceive the menopausal period quite positively. Epidemiology studies have shown that cultural and dietary influences may have an effect on the menopausal transition; women from Maya or Costa Rica have more plant-based dietary as well as use more herbal medicines in daily life. A study shown that the methanol extract of allspice acts as partial agonist/antagonists by enhancing estradiol-stimulated pS2 mRNA expression but reducing progesterone and PTGES mRNA expression with estrogen ²⁷. Along with several other plants extracted studied, this might be one of the mechanisms by which herbal extracts used by South American women alleviates menopausal symptoms.

Cancer

Most, if not all studies reported on antiproliferative activities of Pimenta extracts and purified compounds from Allspice have been in vitro, no studies to date has reported studies on animal models of human cancers. Since chronic inflammation is implicated in many cancers including colorectal, breast and prostate cancer, consuming Allspice or other parts of Pimenta dioica should provide a diet with strong antioxidant source. Consequently, there could be beneficial effect on cancer incidence and or mortality, at least from cancers that are directly implicated due to inflammation. However, few studies have been reported that estimates the type, quantity and potential implication of such a diet in countries that are known to use Allspice extensively. The epidemiological data on cancer incidence and mortality among countries in Caribbean basin is not low but high ²⁸. On the other hand, cancer incidence in Mediterranean countries and in regions that consumes Mediterranean diet rich in Olive oil, green and red vegetable and lower amount of red meats has a lower incidence and mortality of these diseases. This discrepancy between Caribbean countries and Mediterranean countries may be due to many factors. Briefly, there is limited scope in sequestering the contribution of a single dietary factor for changes in cancer incidence in a population. A diet rich in Allspice may also be rich in other antioxidants from sources such as citrus fruits, paprika, turmeric (a source of curcumin), green pepper (capsaicin), cinnamon and other source. Population in the Indian subcontinent has lower risk of colorectal, breast and prostate cancers ²⁹. However, whether this is due to diet or other factors is not clear at this time. On the other hand, limited implication of antioxidant rich Allspice or Pimenta products on cancer incidence in Caribbean countries may be attributed to the method and form of its consumption. Clearly, consumption of Allspice in beef jerky, Jamaican rum is unlikely to have cancer protection effect in population that extensively consumes these products. Red meat and charbroiled food are associated with increased clinical incidence of breast and prostate cancers ²⁹, ³⁰.

Due to the relatively large number and content of aromatic and antioxidant compounds present in Allspice, several groups have attempted to isolate and characterize potential anti-tumor agents in Allspice and Pimenta leaves. The lack of fresh leaves and potential for alteration in content due to the soil conditions in places where Pimenta trees are grown, limited number of studies have been carried out on leaves versus that of Pimenta berries. Assessment of the anti-tumor activities of Pimenta leaf extract or Allspice extracts have used primarily in vitro cell (test tube studies) proliferation assays on normal and tumor cells. It has been reported that polyphenols isolated from the methanol extract of Pimenta dioica leaves remarkably inhibit the cell growth of Hep-G2 and HCT-116 cells with less effect on MCF-7 cells ³¹. Further, studies have shown pro-proliferation effect on non-tumorigenic cells such as 1301 and RAW 264.7 cells ³¹. However, there is indirect evidence that compounds that show antiproliferative activities are present in polyphenols isolated from Allspice. This include Eugenol, Quercetin, pedunculigan and Gallic acid, See Figure 3 all of which exhibit pro-apoptotic and antiproliferative activities on many established human tumor cell lines, including breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MB231 ¹⁵, prostate cancer cell lines PC-3 and LNCaP ¹⁷.

Figure 3. Common phenolic compounds isolated from Allspice

Note: Structures of common phenolic compounds isolated from Pimenta dioica with anti-proliferative activities. A. Eugenol: 4-Allyl-2-methoxyphenol;B. Quercetin: 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,7-trihydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one);C. Gallic acid: 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid; D. Ericifolin: Eugenol 5-0-b-(6′-O-galloylglucopyranoside).

Potential Pharmaceutical Products in Allspice (Pimenta Dioica)

Eugenol

The most important component isolated from Allspice with strong antioxidant activity is Eugenol which composes 60–90% of the essential oil extracted from Allspice berries. The principal source of Eugenol however, is Clove oil. Eugenol is a phenyl propene and several studies have reported its pharmacological activities ⁷. Historically, many natural products are used against microbial infections and many compounds have been found to play a role in the antibacterial activity. Likewise, it is shown that Eugenol inhibits the growth of many different pathogens ⁸ as well as has synergistic effect with known antibiotics ⁹. Similarly, Eugenol has also been evaluated to show the antifungal activity against Candida albicans thus shed a light on the combination therapy for treating Candidiasis ³². Eugenol is also well known for its anti-inflammatory activity ³³ and antioxidant effect ³⁴. The anti-inflammatory effect was investigated on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced activated macrophages, to which Eugenol has inhibitory effect on its COX-2 production as well as NF-KB pathway activation, which are characteristics for inflammation ³⁵. Radical-scavenging against 1,1′-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays were used to test the anti-oxidant effect of Eugenol and showed promising results ³⁴.

More importantly, Eugenol has been shown to have antiproliferative effect and induce apoptosis in various cancer cell lines. On HeLa cells (cervical cancer), Eugenol showed selective cytotoxicity compared to normal mammalian cells. In addition, combination with an established chemotherapy drug, gemcitabine yields better growth inhibition effect with apoptosis induction ³⁶. ROS production dependent apoptosis was found in Eugenol treated human erythroleukemia model HL-60 cells ³⁷. The anti-proliferative effect of Eugenol as well as its isomer isoeugenol was also shown in melanoma cells using xenograft model ³⁸ and epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells ¹⁰. By using xenograft model, Eugenol was implicated in reducing tumor size and inhibition of metastasis, while cell cycle blockage seemed to be the mechanism in the A431 cells.

Quercetin

Quercetin is a dietary polyphenol which is found in many foods that are consumed daily, it is also isolated from Allspice berries, although in a very limited portion ²³. The pharmacological properties of Quercetin have been extensively documents. Briefly the results revealed the pluripotent activities of Quercetin such as antiviral, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects. Quercetin has been reported to have antiviral effect against different types of virus ³⁹, also shown protective effect for cardiovirus infected mice ⁴⁰. And the mechanisms for anti-inflammatory effect of Quercetin lie in down-regulation of NF-KB pathway ⁴¹, inhibition of inflammatory cytokines expression ⁴² and affecting inflammatory gene expression ⁴³.

A large portion of the health benefit studies of Quercetin focus on its anti-cancer potentials and it showed that Quercetin works through various mechanisms. DNA damage rescue and preventions is believed to be the mechanism behind tumorigenesis prevention, and Quercetin was shown to prevent DNA damage as well as increase DNA repair at lower dosages ⁴⁴. However, Quercetin might have pro-oxidant effect which causes cellular damage when administered in high dosage ⁴⁵. Although the pro-oxidant effects are not welcomed for the healthy cells, it actually enabled Quercetin to work like cytotoxic drug against cancer cells under higher dose. For example, it is known that Quercetin induces apoptosis in many cancer cell lines when treated at 40–50μM or higher concentration ⁴⁶. Anti-proliferation as well as apoptosis induction happens in both p53 dependent and independent pathways ⁴⁶. In addition to the classic apoptosis pathways, Quercetin seems to exert more ways to facilitate the induction of cancer cell death. One potential strategy is by modulating the expression of chaperone protein such as HSP70, HSP27 ⁴⁷ and HSP90 ⁴⁸. One important issue about Quercetin is its absorption and metabolism; it was shown that both the glycoside type of Quercetin, i.e. the aglycon and the parental compounds can be absorbed at multiple sites in the human body. And the anti-oxidant effect was significant when higher dosage of Quercetin is administered in the animal, with which to reach a pharmacologically achievable serum concentration of Quercetin ⁴⁹.

Although Quercetin doesnot seem to be the major component of Allspice, Quercetin does perform a strong anti-oxidant effect ⁵⁰. Its potent ROS scavenging function which allows for reducing DNA damage may powerfully contribute to the potential anti-cancer effect of Allspice or Pimenta extracts as well as the potential benefit associated with their consumption.

Gallic Acid

Gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic), which belongs to the phenolic acid family, is distributed among a variety of plants, foods and remedies. Similarly, Gallic acid has been shown to have antiviral effect ⁵¹. The anti-cancer effect of Gallic acid seems very general throughout many types of cancers. Towards prostate cancer, gallic acid induces ROS-dependent apoptosis in LNCaP cells ⁵², inhibits invasion of human prostate PC3 cells by modulating MMP-2 and -9 ⁵³, induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in DU145 cells ⁵⁴ and is able to decrease tumor growth and micro vessel density in a xenograft model ⁵⁵. In addition, gallic acid showed anti-cancer potential against both Estrogen Receptor (ER) positive MCF-7 cells as well as ER negative MB-231 models ⁵⁶. Besides solid tumors, gallic acid is also reported to be effective in inhibiting growth and inducing apoptosis in lymphoma cells ⁵⁷ and inhibiting invasion of human melanoma cells ⁵⁸. The anti-oxidant property of Gallic acid is also beneficial in animal model of Parkinson’s disease ⁵⁹.

Ericifolin

Ericifolin, Eugenol 5-O-galloylglucoside, was first isolated from leaves extract of Melaleuca ericifolia ⁶⁰, whose oil showed antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities ⁶¹. With very preliminary studies about Ericifolin, it was found out that it poses antibacterial activity ⁶¹. Scientists have purified Ericifolin from Aqueous Allspice Extract (AAE) that shows strong antiproliferative, pro-apoptotic, pro-autophagy and anti-androgen receptor activities. Preliminary studies using the Aqueous Allspice Extract (AAE) showed strong and specific activity against prostate cancer cell proliferation and induced multiple anti-tumor activities including apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and repression of androgen receptor transcription and tumor growth inhibition. The purified Ericifolin showed key biological functions of Aqueous Allspice Extract in cell culture studies ⁶². Further studies are underway in the laboratories to fully illustrate its potential.

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Camel milk nutrition

Camel milk has been used for centuries as a medicinal drink in Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures ¹. Camels can produce an adequate amount of milk in drought areas where other domestic animals have very low production. Camel milk products in the world are popular due to increasing demand and are typically available in pharmacies ².

Camel milk is the closest to a human mother’s milk. Most camel milk is drunk fresh ³. Fresh camels’ milk has a high pH. The pH of milk is between 6.5–6.7 ³. This is similar to the pH of sheeps’ milk. When camel milk is left to stand, the acidity rapidly increases. The lactic acid content increases from 0.03 percent after standing 2 hours to 0.14 percent after 6 hours. Camel milk is different from other milks, having low sugar and cholesterol, high minerals (sodium, potassium, iron, copper, zinc and magnesium, and vitamin C) ⁴.  A study ⁵ was made of camel’s milk proteins, of their fraction and amino acid composition. It was shown that the content of the total protein in camel’s milk does not depend on the season and constitutes 15.79–19.52 g of protein per 100 g of camel milk product on the average ³. Examination of the fraction composition of camel’s milk proteins revealed 74.1% of casein and 25.9% of serum proteins (of the total content) ⁵. Of the total amount of serum proteins, albumins constitute 18.8%, globulins, 13% and proteoso-peptones, 17.8%. A study was also made of the essential amino acid content of camel’s milk revealed that camel milk contain about 36.1% essential amino acids. Tryptophan is a limiting amino acid.

Camel milk composition

Camel’s milk is generally an opaque white color and has a faint sweetish odor but sharp taste; sometimes it can be salty ⁶. The most important factor in camel milk is water content ⁷. Young camels, and especially the humans living in drought areas, are in need of fluid to maintain homeostasis and thermoneutrality. The water content of camel milk fluctuates from 84 percent (Knoess, 1976) to 90 percent (Ohri and Joshi, 1961). When examining only the effects of the lack of drinking water on camel milk, the diet remaining unchanged throughout the year, great changes in water content of milk were found. The camels were only allowed to drink water freely during the winter months. From spring until the end of summer the mothers and calves were allowed to drink only once a week for one hour. With water freely accessible the water content of the milk was 86 percent, but when water was restricted the water content of milk rose to 91 percent ⁷.

In a meta-analysis study (1905–2006), camel milk was examined and compared with other milks in five manuscripts. The results published in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have shown ⁷ the average amount of components of camel milk is protein  3.1%; fat 3.5%; lactose 4.4%; ash 0.79%, and total solids 11.9% ⁷. The most important factor in camel milk is water content. The total solid content is similar to that human milk ⁸. With the increase in water content of milk produced by thirsty camels, there was a decrease in the fat content, from 4.3 to 1.1 percent. In the literature, the percentage of milk fat of camels varies from 2.6 to 5.5. Again, the hydration status of the animals would determine the fat content of the milk, as well as the type of forage eaten.

Camel Milk Proteins

The total amount of camel milk protein has been reported as being from 2.9 to 4.9. Camel milk proteins can be divided into two groups: caseins and whey proteins. These proteins are important components of camel milk and have different functions. The amount and type of amino acids in camel milk are high except for lysine, glycine, threonine, and valine. The most important proteins in camel milk are whey proteins, which contain albumin, lactoferrin, immunoglobulins, etc. ³.

Camel Milk Fats, lactose, vitamins, and minerals

The fat content of dromedary camel milk is between 1.2% and 6.4% ⁹. Short chain fatty acids in camel milk are low, but the long chain fatty acids are high in content. The amount of linoleic acid and unsaturated fatty acids in camel milk is also high, which is important for nutrition ³. The total amount of camel milk lactose also has been reported ³. Camel milk has a lot of vitamins from different groups: fat and water-soluble, such as vitamin A, E, D, and B, and especially vitamin C ⁶. Camel milk is a good source of minerals, especially calcium and potassium ³.

The fatty acid composition of camel milk fat was found to be as follows (in weight percentage) ⁷:

• Oleic acid 38.9
• Palmitic acid 29.3
• Stearic acid 11.1
• Myristic acid 7.3
• Lauric acid 4.6
• Linoleic acid 3.8
• Butyric acid 2.1
• Capric acid 1.4
• Caproic acid 0.9
• Caprylic acid 0.6

Camel milk health benefits

Camel milk has emerged to have potential therapeutic effects in many diseases such as food allergy, diabetes mellitus ¹⁰, hepatitis B ¹¹, autism ¹², Rota viral diarrhea, tuberculosis, cancer, liver cirrhosis, rickets, autism spectrum disorder ¹³, Crohn’s disease and other autoimmune diseases ¹⁴, ¹⁵, ¹⁶. It has a unique composition that differs from other ruminants’ milk. It contains lower fat, cholesterol, and lactose than cow milk, higher minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, and potassium) and vitamins A, B2, E, and C compared to cow milk ¹⁷ and it contains no beta lactoglobulin and beta casein which are the main causative of allergy in cow’s milk ¹⁸. Furthermore, camel milk contains various protective proteins, mainly enzymes which exert antibacterial, antiviral, and immunological properties ¹⁹; these include immunoglobulins, lysozymes, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, N-acetyl-§-glucosaminidase (NAGase), and peptidoglycan recognition protein ¹⁸, which are crucial in preventing food allergy and rehabilitating the immune system. Camel milk proved its potential effect in the treatment of food allergies, due to its inflammation-inhibiting proteins, and hypoallergenic properties, in addition to its smaller size nanobodies, which are different than those found in human. Camel milk nanobodies, as a single domain, show many promising and therapeutic potencies in infection and immunity ²⁰.

Lactose Intolerance

Camel milk has lower lactose in comparison with cow’s milk ²¹. Only one study indicated whether camel’s milk can be consumed by patients intolerant to lactose without undesirable reactions; in 25 patients, it was seen that camel’s milk can be considered an option for an individual’s intolerance to lactose, who presents symptoms when ingesting cow’s milk ²².

Diarrhea

Camel milk is a remedy for viruses causing diarrhea (such as Rota virus). Two studies overviewed the effects of camel milk on diarrhea. An animal study in 2010 indicated that fermented camel milk had a higher content of sodium and potassium and stopped diarrhea in model rats. It can be concluded that fermented camel milk can be considered as a good food for high nutritive and therapeutic applications ²³. A review study reported improvement in Crohn’s and autism diseases such as diarrhea; bowel movements were considered normal; thus, the authors offered a new perspective on the etiology of some diarrheal diseases ²⁴.

Milk Allergy

The incidence of milk allergy in infants and young children is very high. Thus, finding suitable milk for alternative mothers or bovine milks in children was needed. Camel milk can safely be used as an alternative. Results of a prospective cohort study, performed in pediatric departments between April 2007 and February 2010 on 35 children aged 6–12 months with a cow’s milk allergy, indicated that 80% of children with cow’s milk allergy were safely able to consume camel milk without developing any adverse allergic reaction ²⁵. In the second study, entitled “To Determine Whether Camel Milk Is Safer than Goat Milk in Cow’s Milk Allergy” 38 children with cow’s milk allergy were evaluated by the following tests: CBC (complete blood count), total IgE, cow milk-specific IgE, and skin-prick test. Fresh camel and goat milks were given to the children. The tests in the children showed less allergic reaction to camel milk and that it can be a safe alternative to goat milk ²⁶. In another study, researchers tested two patients, aged 3 years 6 months and 2 years 3 months, respectively, with cow’s milk allergy, using a skin prick test with food antigens and prick-by-prick test with powder of camel milk and full cream cow’s milk. The patients were positive for the cow’s milk and negative for the camel milk in the prick test. These observations agreed with the results reported by Ehlayel on a cohort of 35 patients tested with fresh camel milk ²⁷. In a similar study six, cow’s milk allergy patients aged from 14 months to 13 years using prick test with food antigens and prick-by-prick test with powder camel milk and full cream cow’s milk were tested. All children resulted positive for full cream cow’s milk and negative for camel milk at prick-by-prick test ²⁸. Results of the above studies show that camel milk could represent a possible alternative to infant formulas in cow’s milk allergy. More studies are needed to confirm this finding. The researchers hypothesize that the children were able to tolerate the camel milk because it contains a different protein than cow’s milk, which does not elicit an immune response.

Camel milk and Autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a severe neurodevelopment disorder characterized by impairments in social orientation, communication, and repetitive behaviors ²⁹. Camel milk provides many benefits, especially for autistic children. Camel milk is traditionally used in autism treatment in some areas of the world. A study published in the 2005 observed the effects of camel milk consumption, instead of cow milk, on several cases of children and adults with autism. Researchers discovered that, when a 4-year-old female participant consumed camel milk for 40 days, a 15-year-old boy consumed camel milk for 30 days, and several 21-year-old autistics consumed camel milk for two weeks, their autism symptoms disappeared. The patients were also observed to be quieter and less self-destructive. The authors reported in another study that camel milk consumption in children under 15 has been effective in controlling some of the symptoms, especially in the group under 10 years ³⁰. Some parents report that their children were suffering from autism; then the children used camel milk, some of their symptoms improved such as better sleep; increased motor planning and spatial awareness; increased eye contact; better language and improved gastrointestinal function. In a study ³¹ conducted on 60 patients with autism (2 to 12 years old) in Saudi Arabia, the effects of camel and cow’s milk were evaluated when 500 ml of milk twice daily for 2 weeks were given to children. In the analysis, the baseline level of antioxidants of all the children was low. Results after two weeks showed significant improvement in cognitive and behavioral tests due to camel milk and lowered effects of oxidative stress. The researchers showed that camel milk plays an important role and reduces the effects of oxidative stress by adjusting the antioxidant enzymes and nonenzymatic antioxidant materials levels and improves psychological symptoms ³¹. In a case report published in 2013, a boy had been introduced in the third year of his life to recognize autism. The mother of this boy started, from the age of nine years, to give him a glass of camel milk at night. He was observed for six years (2007–2013) to see if camel milk would control the symptoms of autism ³². This report agreed with the results reported by Y. Shabo ³⁰ that camel milk is especially useful for autistic children (Autism Spectrum Disorder). Another clinical study investigated the effect of camel milk on biochemical markers. Forty-five children diagnosed with autism were randomly assigned to receive boiled camel milk for group I (n = 15), raw camel milk for group II (n = 15), and a placebo for group III (n = 15) for 2 weeks. Camel milk administered for 2 weeks significantly improved clinical symptoms of autism and decreased serum level of “thymus and activation-regulated chemokine” in autistic children ³³.

Food Allergies

Camel milk proved its potential effect in the treatment of food allergies. A study has investigated the effect of camel milk on children who were allergic to cow’s milk. Eight children who suffered from food allergies to different degrees participated in the study. They were only given camel milk to drink ³⁴. It appeared that camel milk has a positive effect in children with severe food allergies. The reactions are rapid and long lasting. A study by El-Agamy ³⁵ revealed that, when applying camel’s milk protein–specific antisera in immunoblotting analysis, there was no immunologic cross reactivity between camel and cow’s milk proteins. This study is laboratory work to obtain a better understanding of the competence of the greater camel of cow’s milk for food allergies in children. For this purpose, molecular and immunological similarities of milk were evaluated. Milk proteins of camels, cows, and humans, extracted by two different methods of electrophoresis, and were investigated. The results show that camel milk proteins can be used as a new protein source for food allergies ³⁵.

Summary

These findings revealed that camel milk is safer for children and may be effective in the treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder and improves general well-being. Also, the numerous nutrients in camel milk help to promote the body’s natural defenses and thus can be considered as a good source of protein, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin C, and niacin and can meet part of the daily nutritional needs of humans. However, more large clinical trials are needed to support these findings. The researchers hope that these reports for pediatricians will lead to increased research on camel milk and its uses for children.

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What are walnuts

A walnut is the nut of any tree of the genus Juglans (Family Juglandaceae). Walnuts are rounded, single-seeded stone fruits of the walnut tree commonly used for the meat after fully ripening. Following full ripening, the removal of the husk reveals the wrinkly walnut shell, which is usually commercially found in two segments (three-segment shells can also form). Technically a walnut is the seed of a drupe or drupaceous nut, and thus not a true botanical nut. There are two major varieties of walnuts grow in in the United States—the English or Persian walnut (Juglans regia) and the Black walnut (Juglans nigra). The English Walnut originated in Persia, and the Black walnut is native to the United States. The black walnut is of high flavor, but due to its hard shell and poor hulling characteristics it is not grown commercially for nut production. Numerous walnut cultivars have been developed commercially, which are nearly all hybrids of the English walnut ¹.

Other species include Juglans californica, the California black walnut (often used as a root stock for commercial breeding of English walnut), Juglans cinerea (butternuts), and Juglans major, the Arizona walnut. Walnuts are used for food after being processed while green for pickled walnuts or after full ripening for its nutmeat. Nutmeat of the eastern black walnut from the Juglans nigra is less commercially available, as are butternut nutmeats from Juglans cinerea.

Walnuts, like other tree nuts, must be processed and stored properly. Poor storage makes walnuts susceptible to insect and fungal mold infestations; the latter produces aflatoxin – a potent carcinogen. A mold-infested walnut batch should be entirely discarded ².

The ideal temperature for longest possible storage of walnuts is in the −3 to 0 °C (27 to 32 °F) and low humidity – for industrial and home storage. However, such refrigeration technologies are unavailable in developing countries where walnuts are produced in large quantities; there, walnuts are best stored below 25 °C (77 °F) and low humidity. Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F), and humidities above 70 percent can lead to rapid and high spoilage losses. Above 75 percent humidity threshold, fungal molds that release dangerous aflatoxin can form ², ³.

Are walnuts good for you ?

Many people think of nuts as just another junk food snack. In reality, nuts are excellent sources of healthy fat, protein, and other healthful nutrients.

One surprising finding from nutrition research is that people who regularly eat nuts are less likely to have heart attacks or die from heart disease than those who rarely eat them ⁴. Several of the largest cohort studies, including the Adventist Study, the Iowa Women’s Health Study, the Nurses’ Health Study I (76,364 women from 1980 to 2012),  Nurses’ Health Study II (92,946 women from 1991 to 2013) and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (41,526 men from 1986 to 2012) have shown a consistent 30 percent to 50 percent lower risk of myocardial infarction (heart attack), sudden cardiac death or cardiovascular disease associated with eating nuts several times a week.

Total nut consumption was inversely associated with total cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors ⁴. The pooled multivariable hazard ratios for cardiovascular disease were 0.86 (95% confidence interval) and coronary heart disease 0.80 (95% confidence interval) among participants who consumed 1 serving of nuts (28 g) 5 or more times per week, compared with the reference category (never or almost never). Consumption of peanuts and tree nuts (2 or more times/week) and walnuts (1 or more times/week) was associated with a 13% to 19% lower risk of total cardiovascular disease and 15% to 23% lower risk of coronary heart disease. In fact, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) now allows some nuts and foods made with them to carry this claim: “Supportive but not conclusive research shows that eating 1.5 ounces per day of walnuts, as part of a low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet and not resulting in increased caloric intake, may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. See nutrition information for fat [and calorie] content” ⁵.

Figure 1. Nut Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease

Note: CVD = cardiovascular disease; CHD = coronary artery disease; Hazard Ratio = A measure of how often a particular event happens in one group compared to how often it happens in another group, over time. Anything under 1.0 is better. For example, a hazard ratio of 0.83 for stroke in those who consumes walnuts at least once a week is thought to mean that a group has 83% the chance of dying than a comparison group who don’t consumer walnuts.

There are several ways that nuts could have such an effect. The unsaturated fats they contain help lower LDL (bad) cholesterol and raise HDL (good) cholesterol. One group of unsaturated fat found in walnuts, the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), appears to prevent the development of erratic heart rhythms. Omega-3 fatty acids (which are also found in fatty fish such as salmon and bluefish) may also prevent blood clots, much as aspirin does.In addition, research has shown that diets rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids can significantly reduce blood low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, increase the total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol ratio, and help achieve optimal fat consumption without adverse effects on total fat or energy intake ⁶, ⁷.

In one large study examining nuts and health, researchers analyzed data from over 210,000 health professionals followed up to 32 years ⁴. They found that, compared with those who never or almost never ate nuts, people who ate one ounce of nuts five or more times per week had a 14% lower risk of cardiovascular disease and a 20% lower risk of coronary heart disease during the study period. Both peanuts (technically a legume, but nutritionally similar to nuts) and walnuts were linked with lower disease risk.

In addition, other large prospective studies have consistently observed a reduction in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and mortality associated with increased nut consumption ⁸. Clinical trials have also have shown effects on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors such as lipid profiles, vascular inflammation and blood pressure after various interventions that have included nuts, such as a Mediterranean diet ⁹. Nuts are a complex food composed of a number of nutrients and phytochemicals that may lower cardiovascular disease risk.

Among members of the nut family, walnuts have been found to be particularly promising in terms of health benefits. Compared with most other nuts, walnuts have a higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including α-linolenic acid (ALA), which may confer additional antiatherogenic influences ¹⁰. Epidemiological studies suggest that plant-derived α-linolenic acid (ALA) may confer particular cardiovascular benefits ¹¹. According to a review of clinical trials, consumption of 2–3 servings of walnuts per day has been found to consistently decrease total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol ¹⁰. Consumption of walnuts has also been shown to improve endothelial function in individuals with hypercholesterolemia and type 2 diabetes ¹², ¹³. In addition, walnuts have been found to increase the insulin response during an oral glucose tolerance test, and to decrease levels of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), in individuals with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) ¹⁴.

Several reviews have described possible explanations and mechanisms by which this unique fatty acid profile can beneficially affect cholesterol concentrations and other cardiovascular disease risk factors ¹⁵. Whether by simply replacing saturated fatty acids in the diet or by explicitly acting on various pathways in cardiovascular disease (CVD) development, walnuts appear to have the potential to beneficially affect cardiovascular disease risk. Feeding trials have shown cholesterol-lowering trends in walnut-enriched diets compared with control diets, as reviewed by Feldman ⁶, ¹⁶. Many qualitative reviews have suggested beneficial effects of walnuts on cholesterol concentrations ¹⁷.

Nuts are a rich source of arginine, an amino acid needed to make a molecule called nitric oxide that relaxes constricted blood vessels and eases blood flow. They also contain vitamin E, folic acid, potassium, magnesium, fiber, essential fatty acids, and phytochemicals. Because different nuts supply a different mix of nutrients, it’s a good idea to incorporate a variety of nuts into a healthy eating plan.

The high levels of antioxidants found in walnuts conferred an improvement in antioxidant status as noted by increased enzyme activity and stable oxidation of LDL (bad) cholesterol. Some inflammatory markers also improved with walnut consumption compared with other diets. Evidence for C-reactive protein reduction was inconsistent, although decreases in vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) were apparent among subjects during walnut-rich diets. Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) is a marker for endothelial function. Overall, walnuts significantly improved lipid profiles and favorably affected a number of other factors associated with cardiovascular disease risk. There was no evidence, however, which suggests that walnut-enriched diets beneficially affected insulin resistance or blood pressure ¹⁶.

Of course, eating nuts won’t do much good if you gobble them in addition to usual snacks and meals. Furthermore, due to their high energy density, they are also a theoretical contributor to positive energy balance and weight gain, which potentially raises questions about such recommendations ¹⁸. At an average of 185 calories per ounce, a handful of walnuts a day could add 10 pounds or more in a year if you don’t cut back on something else. This weight gain would tip the scales toward heart disease, not away from it. Instead, eat nuts instead of chips or other, less healthy snacks. Or try using them instead of meat in main dishes, or as a healthful crunch in salads.

BMI and weight change

There has been some concern about recommending increased nut consumption for patients with high cholesterol concentrations because of the high fat content and supposed risk of weight gain. Multiple authors have reviewed this topic and conclude that short-term intervention data do not suggest a significant weight gain and to the contrary, sometimes indicate weight loss with increased nut consumption ¹⁹, ²⁰. Of the studies identified in the literature review, none reported significant weight change while on a walnut-based diet intervention. The 4 studies reporting BMI (body mass index) change ²¹ and the 8 studies reporting weight change ²², ²³, ²⁴, ²⁵, ²⁶, ²⁷ outcomes actually observed slight nonsignificant decreases from baseline. Results are mixed when compared with the control diets in a meta-analysis, producing an overall null difference between them ¹⁷. Importantly, weight gain did not occur during short-term dietary interventions with walnuts.

Walnuts nutrition facts

The walnut is nutrient-dense with protein and essential fatty acids. Walnuts without shells are 4% water, 15% protein, 65% fat, and 14% carbohydrates, including 7% dietary fiber (see Table 1).

In a 100-gram serving, walnuts provide 654 kcal and contain 15.2 g protein, 65.2 g fat and 6.7 g dietary fiber. Walnut is also has rich content (more than 19% of the Daily Value or DV) of several dietary minerals, particularly manganese at 163% DV, and B vitamins (see Table 1).

While English walnuts are the most commonly consumed, their nutrient density and profile are generally similar to those of black walnuts.

Unlike most nuts that are high in monounsaturated fatty acids, walnut oil is composed largely of polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids ~ 47.2 g (72% of total fats), particularly alpha-linolenic acid (14%) and linoleic acid (58%), although it does contain oleic acid as 13% of total fats ²⁸.

Table 1. Walnuts (English) nutrition facts

Table 2. Walnuts (black, dried) nutrition facts

Table 3. Walnuts (glazed) nutrition facts

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21. Canales A, Benedí J, Nus M, Librelotto J, Sánchez-Montero JM, Sánchez-Muniz FJ. Effect of walnut-enriched restructured meat in the antioxidant status of overweight/obese senior subjects with at least one extra CHD-risk factor. J Am Coll Nutr 2007;26:225–32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17634167
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28. Fatty acid profiles, tocopherol contents, and antioxidant activities of heartnut (Juglans ailanthifolia Var. cordiformis) and Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.). Li L, Tsao R, Yang R, Kramer JK, Hernandez M. J Agric Food Chem. 2007 Feb 21; 55(4):1164-9. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf062322d
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Are instant noodles bad for you ?

Over consumption of instant noodles has recently received special attention, owing to its association with obesity and cardiometabolic syndrome among adults in South Korea ¹. By using International Diabetes Federation criteria ², metabolic syndrome was defined as abdominal obesity (waist circumference ≥90 cm in men and ≥80 cm in women) plus any 2 of the following components: 1) elevated blood pressure (systolic blood pressure ≥130 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure ≥85 mm Hg or antihypertensive medication use), 2) low HDL “good” cholesterol [fasting HDL cholesterol <40 mg/dL (0.4 g/L) in men and <50 mg/dL (0.5 g/L) in women], 3) hyperglycemia [fasting glucose ≥100 mg/dL (1 g/L) or antidiabetic medication use (insulin or oral agents) or physician-diagnosed diabetes], and 4) hypertriglyceridemia [fasting triglycerides ≥150 mg/dL(1.5 g/L)]. In addition, high LDL “bad” cholesterol was defined as fasting LDL cholesterol ≥130 mg/dL (1.3 g/L). The high-calorie content and the high concentration of refined carbohydrates, fats, and sodium ³ in instant noodles, contribute to an increased risk of metabolic disease ¹. Consumption of instant noodles as a staple food source is rising in many Asian countries ⁴ but South Korea is ranked the world’s number one per capita in instant noodle consumption (72.8 servings of instant noodles per annum) ⁵. A recent survey ⁶ reported that college students consume instant noodles more frequently than adults in other age groups because of the convenience of preparing instant noodles on school premises.

Unlike fresh ramen noodles, most instant noodles are deep-fried to dry them, so they are high in calories, refined carbohydrates, saturated fat, and sodium ³. The most consumed ⁷ type of instant noodles in Korea, for example, contains 505 kcal and provides 24, 31, 53, and 90% of the recommended daily values for carbohydrates, fat, saturated fat and sodium, respectively ³. Several studies have suggested that the high energy density, glycemic load (due to the refined carbohydrates), saturated fat content, and sodium content of instant noodles, may contribute to increased cardiometabolic risk factors. South Korea leads the world in per capita consumption of instant noodles, at 72.8 servings/year, which is almost six times higher than the world average of 13.5 servings in 2015 ⁸, with per capita consumption showing an increasing trend ⁹. The convenience and low price of instant noodles have intensified their popularity in recent decades. The preference for instant noodles is particularly strong among college students, with time or financial constraints. It has been reported that among adults of all age groups, younger adults aged 20-49 years, consume greater amounts of instant noodles (22.2 g/d) than those aged 50-64 years (7.6 g/d) ¹⁰.

The fact that college students with unhealthy dietary habits frequently eat instant noodles and may be at increased risk of negative health outcomes should receive special attention because of a recent survey that reported an increasing trend of early premature cardiovascular diseases death among adults as young as 20-49 years of age in Korea ¹¹. There is also an increasing trend in the proportion of individuals in the same group of young adults with increased cardiometabolic risk factors, such as overweight or obesity, hypertension, and elevated blood levels of glucose and lipids ¹².

Analysis of dietary data collected in the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) III, 2005, identified that consumers of instant noodles, compared to people who did not consume instant noodles, had significantly higher intakes of energy, fat, sodium, thiamine, and riboflavin and lower intakes of protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, vitamin A, niacin, and vitamin C ¹³. Analysis from KNHANES IV (2007–2009) demonstrated that the consumption of instant noodles two or more times per week was associated with a higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome in women and that this association was independent of major dietary patterns ¹⁴.

Figure 1. Instant noodles global demand & consumption

Researchers at Harvard University reported a 68% higher risk of metabolic syndrome among women who consume instant noodles ≥ twice/week ¹⁶, but not in men. They found that frequent consumption of instant noodles was associated with increased diastolic blood pressure in women. These gender discrepancies might result from differences in food group compositions in the dietary intake patterns between males and females ¹⁷ and the biological differences between males and females, such as sex hormones and metabolism ¹⁸. Previous authors suggested an interaction between bisphenol A and the estrogen receptor, as a possible contributor to the gender difference. Bisphenol A is known to be a selective modulator of estrogen receptors that can accelerate adipogenesis ¹⁹. Considering that women may be more sensitive to instant noodle-associated metabolic changes is intriguing. Whether this is due to bisphenol A found in packaging or to other substances in instant noodles, warrants further investigation. Meanwhile, it is advisable to guide young women to minimize their instant noodle consumption to decrease future cardiovascular disease metabolic risk.

This study ²⁰, the researchers found a positive association between the frequency of instant noodle consumption and plasma triglyceride levels, diastolic blood pressure, and fasting blood glucose levels in Korean college students. Study subjects with a higher frequency of instant noodle consumption were more likely to have multiple cardiometabolic risk factors. The association between an exposure and an outcome for hypertriglyceridemia was significantly higher in the group that consumed instant noodles ≥ 3 times/week compared to the group with the lowest consumption frequency (≤ 1 time/month) ²⁰. This association existed in male and female students respectively, as well as in the combined subjects.

The positive association between instant noodle consumption and triglyceride levels that was observed among college students is supported by the results of another recent study conducted on Korean adults aged 19–64 years ²⁰. Yeon and Bae ²¹ showed that the group with high instant noodle consumption (≥ 1 serving/week) had significantly higher triglyceride levels compared with the low instant noodle consumption group (< 1 serving/week). The researchers also found that college students who reported consuming instant noodles ≥ 3 times/week were at a higher risk for hypertriglyceridemia. They were unable to provide a mechanistic interpretation of these findings but it is probably due to the large amounts of carbohydrates and fat contained in instant noodles. Excess carbohydrate intake is known to increase triglyceride levels ²².

Cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death worldwide ²³, responsible for 17.5 million deaths in 2012. High salt intake raises blood pressure, a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Reducing population salt intake is recognized as a best way for prevention and control of non-communicable diseases by lowering blood pressure and reducing risk of strokes and heart disease ²⁴. Salt reduction is considered a priority intervention by the World Health Organization (WHO) due to its high feasibility and potential to benefit to the whole population. Many countries are working towards achieving the global target of a 30% relative reduction in mean population salt intake by 2025, towards the WHO recommendation of <5,000 milligrams/day ²⁵. However, The American Heart Association recommends no more than 2,300 milligrams (mgs) a day and an ideal limit of no more than 1,500 mg per day for most adults ²⁶. 1 teaspoon salt = 2,300 mg sodium

In the study ²⁰, diastolic but not systolic blood pressure was increased, according to the frequency of instant noodle consumption and the effect was more apparent in female students. Diastolic blood pressure is considered an index of salt sensitivity ²⁷. Instant noodles made in Korea contain a significant amount of sodium in one serving (600-2,770 mg) ²⁸. According to the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ²⁹, noodles are one of the main sources of sodium intake in Korea, and instant noodles comprised the largest proportion of noodles eaten by South Korean adults in their 20s. If diastolic blood pressure is an index of salt sensitivity, the data indicate a gender difference in salt sensitively, such that women may be more salt-sensitive than men ²⁰. This needs to be verified though further studies.

In the present study ²⁰, a positive association was observed between instant noodle consumption and fasting blood glucose levels. This observation is partially consistent with a previous report ²¹, which found that instant noodle consumption was associated with an increased prevalence of hyperglycemia in Korean women only. Instant noodles are generally high in refined carbohydrates but low in fiber ³. This correlates with the high glycemic index (GI) or the high glycemic load of instant noodles. Some studies ³⁰ have reported that the instant noodles produced in Korea have a GI of 71–87 and instant noodles are categorized as a high-GI food.

Although there was no difference in the proportion of subjects with metabolic syndrome between groups, students with a higher frequency of instant noodle consumption were more likely to have multiple cardiometabolic risk factors. Significant differences were observed in the proportion of subjects with two risk factors (17.7 vs. 27.6%) and three or more risk factors (0.7 vs. 2.5%), and between those who consumed instant noodles ≤ 1 time/month vs. ≥ 3 times/week. Our findings suggest that instant noodle consumption might be associated with the presence of multiple risk factors, even if metabolic syndrome has not yet manifested because the study subjects consisted of relatively young individuals.

Instant noodles calories

Generally one serving of instant noodles has 300-500kcal.

The main components of instant noodles are wheat flour, starch, water, salt, fat and kansui (an alkaline mixture of sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and sodium phosphate), and other ingredients are added to improve the texture and flavour of the noodles ³¹.

The largest portion is carbohydrate, which accounts for 60g per 100g of instant noodles. It is because the main material of noodles is wheat flour. 8.4-10.7 gram of protein and 4.6-7.7 gram of ash are contained in 100g of instant noodles. The contents vary slightly, depending on the type and blending of wheat flour.

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What is zucchini

Botanically zucchini (courgette) is a fruit, it’s considered a vegetable — more specifically, is a summer squash which can reach nearly a meter in length, but is usually harvested immature at 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 in). In Britain and Ireland a fully grown zucchini is referred to as a marrow. Along with certain other squashes and pumpkins, zucchini belongs to the species Cucurbita pepo. Zucchini can be dark or light green. A related hybrid, the golden zucchini, is a deep yellow or orange color ¹.

Zucchini belongs to the species Cucurbita pepo which includes pumpkins and cucumbers. It is also known as courgette in French while the British call it vegetable marrow. The skin color can vary from light to dark green. It is best eaten prior to the skin becoming tough and seeds growing large.

The flowers of the zucchini are also edible and used regularly in French and Italian cuisine for dressing meals or for garnishing cooked fruit, offering great taste in the process. Zucchini is extensively grown in Argentina, Mexico, Turkey, Egypt China, Japan, Italy, and India amongst other countries. Though grown all year long, the peak season is in the summer months. Zucchini cannot be stored for long periods unless frozen (you can freeze grated raw zucchini, or lightly steamed slices. Make sure to pack in air-tight containers).

In a culinary context, zucchini is treated as a vegetable; it is usually cooked and presented as a savory dish or accompaniment. Botanically, zucchinis are fruits, a type of botanical berry called a “pepo”, being the swollen ovary of the zucchini flower.

Zucchini, like all squash, has its ancestry in the Americas. However, the varieties of squash typically called “zucchini” were developed in northern Italy in the second half of the 19th century, many generations after the introduction of cucurbits from the Americas in the early 16th century.

Health benefits of zucchini

Zucchini is good for the heart. Zucchini contains good amounts of potassium that helps reduce blood pressure. It also contains moderate levels of folate that breaks down amino acids like homocysteine that cause heart attacks and strokes. The considerable amount of magnesium helps in keeping blood pressure at a normal rate and the heart beat at a steady rhythm.

Zucchini has incredibly low calories that make it a much-preferred part of any weight loss diet. Substituting calorie rich foods with a sizable portion of zucchini helps you in reducing the number of calories that are taken in. This makes it easier to burn off calories, thereby helping you lose weight. Zucchini also keeps the body hydrated with its 93 percent water content. This gives you more energy and fewer headaches.

The presence of Vitamin A in the zucchini helps in active cell development in the eyes, which enhances vision and may help in preventing age-related medical conditions affecting the eyes such as macular degeneration.

Due to zucchini being a good source of vitamin C. Vitamin C plays a role in collagen, carnitine, hormone, and amino acid formation. It is essential for wound healing and facilitates recovery from burns. Vitamin C is also an antioxidant, supports immune function, and facilitates the absorption of iron ².

Zucchini nutrition facts

Generally, there is little variation in nutritional value between zucchini varieties. The peel is where many of the nutrients hide, so never peel summer zucchini.

Zucchini are low in food energy (approximately 21 kilocalories per 100 g fresh zucchini) and contain useful amounts of folate (20 μg/100 g), potassium (459 mg/100 g) and provitamin A (490 IU [25 RAE]/100 g). Zucchini can be shaped into noodle-like spirals and used as a low-carb substitute for pasta.

Table 1. Zucchini nutrition facts

1. Summer Squash. http://extension.illinois.edu/veggies/ssquash.cfm
2. Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Merck Manual. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid). https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/nutritional-disorders/vitamin-deficiency,-dependency,-and-toxicity/vitamin-c
3. United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list